Independent samples t test, Kruskal-Wallis Variance Analysis, and Mann- Whitney U test were used for data analysis. A significance level of .05 was used for all analyses. These procedures were run in SPSS for Windows.

As seen in Table 2, prospective teachers’ scores on communication skills did not differ significantly according to their level of submissive acts (df = 272, t = 1.21, p > .05). On the other hand, their means on communication skills differed significantly according to their level of social comparison (df = 272, t = 5.15, p < .05). Prospective teachers who held a positive self-image through social comparison had significantly higher means on communication skills (M = 104.64, SD = 8.30) than those who held negative self-images (M = 99.36, SD = 8.55). Prospective teachers’ communication skills also differed significantly according to whether they perceived themselves as popular or not (df = 272, t = 3.39, p < .05). Those prospectives who perceived themselves as popular had a significantly higher mean score on communication skills (M = 103.62, SD = 8.88) than those who did not perceive themselves as popular (M = 99.84, SD = 8.13). Likewise, prospective teachers’ communication skills also differed significantly according to whether or not they perceived themselves as assertive (df = 272, t = 2.16, p < .05). Prospective teachers who perceived themselves as assertive had a significantly higher mean (M = 103.09, SD = 8.87) than those who did not view themselves as assertive (M = 100.53, SD = 8.36).

Kruskal-Wallis Variance Analysis was conducted to test whether or not prospective teachers’ level of communication skills differed significantly according to income and perceived parental attitudes. Results are illustrated in Table 3.

As seen Table 3, prospective teachers’ level of communication skills differed significantly according to income (H = 11.62, p < .05) and perceived parental attitudes (H = 6.94, p < .05). A Mann-Whitney U test was used to further explore these differences.

As illustrated in Table 4, prospectives who received a very high income had a significantly higher mean rank on communication skills (MR = 19.38) than those with low income (MR = 9.03). Prospectives who received a high income had a significantly higher mean rank on communication skills (MR = 55.23) than those with low income (MR = 32.85). Likewise, prospectives who received an average income had a significantly higher mean rank on communication skills (MR = 95.98) than those with low income (MR = 63.59). In short, as participants’ level of income increased so did their level of communication skills. Students who perceived their parents as democratic had a significantly higher mean rank on communication skills (MR = 132.65) than those with perceived authoritarian parental attitudes (MR = 96.58).

In this study we tested whether or not Turkish prospective teachers’ levels of communication skills differed significantly according to submissive acts, self-images drawn from social comparisons, and other personal variables. The finding on submissive acts was contrary to those of previous researchers who have reported a significant relationship between submissive acts and individuals’ communication skills. Some authors found strong relationships between submissive acts and fear of social interaction and fear of negative social evaluation (Gilbert, 2000; as cited in Yıldırım, 2004). Others have found links between submissive acts and psychological problems (Allan & Gilbert, 1997) and psychopathology (Connan, Troop, Landau, Campbell, & Treasure, 2007). Given these findings, one would expect that individuals with high levels of submissive acts would score lower on communication skills. However, as noted above, the difference between these two variables was not significant. Submissive acts are marked by difficulty in voicing feelings and thoughts and an inability to defend oneself when one’s rights are being violated (Erdoğdu & Oto, 2004). Relative to the Western cultures, submissive acts are more prevalent in interpersonal relationships among individuals of Eastern cultures. As a result of the heavy Eastern influence on the Turkish culture, submissive acts and respect are often intertwined. In hierarchical relationships between parents and children, administrators and subordinates, and teachers and students, persons with lower status are expected to behave respectfully, which often involves submissive acts. However, a respectful but not submissive stance in relationships provides room for individuals’ freedom, creativity and productivity. Such individuals are free to think, question, change and come up with alternative ways of handling matters. On the other hand, individuals involved in relationships requiring submissive acts have a lower sense of self, a lower sense of self-importance, a lack of freedom, and/or limited opportunities for self-expression, and thus are not expected to be productive and creative. A person with these attributes is expected to do what is required of him or her (Yıldırım & Ergene, 2003). Submissive acts are reinforced when respect and validation are obtained through submission and chance for relational conflicts and their resolutions are eliminated in hierarchical interpersonal relationships (Kaya, Güneş, Kaya, & Pehlivan, 2004). Individual needs for close relationships and validation might encourage submissive acts (Savaşır & Şahin, 1997). However, healthy and long-lasting relationships can be attained only if individuals can voice their feelings and opinions to others and receive respect from others without compromising their rights and needs. Hence, finding no significant difference between prospective teachers’ submissive acts and their communication skills might be attributed to characteristics of the Turkish culture.

Consistent with findings of previous studies, results of the current work showed that individuals holding positive self-images (attained from social comparisons) scored higher on communication skills. Individuals use social comparison to evaluate themselves on a variety of attributes. Thus, social comparison provides a basis for positive or negative self-evaluation (Savaşır & Şahin, 1997). Individuals with positive self-images have high self-esteem which has been associated with better psychological health and socially adaptive behaviors (Üstün & Akman, 2002), proactive personal style which involves taking the initiative and persistence in efforts toward attainment of goals (Guler-Sahin, 2006), self- confidence (Aslan, 2006; Reece & Brandt, 1990), assertiveness (Yıldız, 2006), effective communication (Işık, 2006) and the ability to form and maintain healthy interpersonal relationships. Positive self-image is essential in forming meaningful and intimate relationships (Devito, 1989) and has a significant contribution to individuals’ behaviors in social contexts.

Findings also showed that individuals who perceived themselves as popular had higher levels of communication skills. Literature on popularity reveals similar findings. Popular individuals have been found to be physically attractive; interesting (Demir, 2006; Oral, 2007); warm and sensitive (Eddy & Dymphna, 2005; Eder, 1985); self-respecting (Crocker & Knight, 2005); self-confident; energetic and active (Adams & Roopnarine, 1994); extraverted; sympathetic; and fun. These persons often have more friends. It is likely that the positive feedback these persons receive from others might contribute to their self-images, which − in turn − might contribute to their ease with interpersonal communication.

Participants who perceived themselves as assertive reported higher levels of communication skills. This finding is in line with those of previous studies on assertiveness, which have shown positive associations with communication skills (Kukulu, Buldukoğlu, Kulakaç, & Köksal, 2006) and interpersonal efficacy (Turner, Conkel, Reich, Trotter, & Siewart, 2006). Individuals who consider themselves timid and aggressive, or who have difficulty in self-expression report lower levels of assertiveness (Yıldız, 2006).

Individuals’ levels of communication skills increased in parallel with their income. Prior work has revealed similar results that persons with higher incomes reported higher levels of communication skills (Görür, 2001), assertiveness (Onur, 2006), and self-esteem (Tatoglu, 2006), and lower levels of submissive behaviors (Yıldırım, 2004). On the other hand, individuals with lower income levels perceived themselves as having more obstacles to overcome and reported higher levels of stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms (Selçuk, 2000).

Participants who perceived their parents’ style as democratic scored higher on communication skills. This is consistent with literature on parental attitudes. Interactions with parents constitute one’s first social experiences, they are intimate and long-lasting (Terasa & Holmbeck, 1995; as cited in Öksüz, 2002) thus they might provide an experiential basis for individuals’ future interpersonal relationships (Büyüksahin-Cevik, 2007; Kapçı & Küçüker, 2006). Researchers examining parental styles often report the following characteristics in children of democratic parents: independent, friendly, skilled in expressing themselves, cooperative, mindful of the needs of others, emotionally stable, socially skillful, successful, self-confident (Demiriz & Öğretir, 2007; Erdoğdu, 2006), and having higher levels of self-acceptance (Kılıççı, 1992) and self-esteem (Haktanır & Baran, 1998; Tatoğlu, 2006). Individuals raised with democratic parenting are likely to form healthy interpersonal relationships because they can acquire a democratic interpersonal style through their relationships with parents which could have positive impacts on their other social interactions.

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