Training to become a professional dancer involves consistently producing high standards of performance. Dance students tend to participate in a range of physically demanding dance classes throughout the course of a day. Optimal performance is associated with controlling performance-threatening mood states (Brehm, 1999; Parkinson, Totterdell, Briner, & Reynolds, 1996; Terry, 1995). Mood states associated with poor performance include negative moods such as depression and anxiety (Beedie, Terry, & Lane, 2000). Investigating factors within dance environments associated with reducing negative mood states such as tension and depression might enhance performance. Few researchers have investigated how dancers' moods change on a lesson-by-lesson basis.

As dance involves physical activity, it is necessary to consider the influence of physical activity on mood. Research indicates that physical activity and exercise are effective methods of reducing negative mood states (Thayer, Newman, & McClain, 1994). Enhanced mood has been reported following a range of different types of activity including running, cycling, aerobic dance, Hatha yoga, jogging, tai chi, and walking (Berger, 1996a, 1996b; Berger, Friedman, & Eaton, 1988; Berger & Motl, 2000; Berger & Owen, 1988, 1998). It is suggested that mood-enhancement is maximized when exercise is of light to moderate intensity, and involves an absence of interpersonal competition (Berger & Motl). Exercises such as dance aerobics have been found to be associated with mood enhancement (Lane & Lovejoy, 2001). However, the absence of research investigating mood changes following dance classes among serious dancers means that it would be hazardous to speculate on what the effects might be.

To date there has been no research examining the effects of modern dance on mood changes. Modern dance comprises taking part in exercise and thus should be associated with mood enhancement. It is acknowledged that the intensity of the exercise varies considerably among different dance styles. The research center in the present study teaches the Contemporary dance styles of Limon and Graham. The Limon style involves flowing, tension-free and rhythmic movements whereas the Graham style involves holding balances, isometric and unnatural movements. The purpose of the present study was to explore mood changes following two different styles of modern dance.

Given the evidence on mood changes following exercise, we hypothesized that mood enhancement would be greater following the Limon dance style. We proposed that the lower intensity actions of the Limon style of dance would lead to greater mood enhancement than would the Graham technique classes, characterized by higher intensity angular movements.

Method

Participants

Volunteer participants were 23 (Age M = 20.21yr, SD = 1.84; Male n = 2, Female n = 21) modern dancers from the Laban Center, London. Laban Center, London is Europe's largest professional training center for Contemporary Dance. It provides practical and theoretical classes at undergraduate, postgraduate and professional levels. Entrance requirements include a practical dance audition as well as a level of academic ability. The small number of male participants may be attributed to the gender split typical in dance training.

Measures

Mood Mood was assessed using the 24-item Brunel University Mood Rating Scale (This measure was previously called the Profile of Mood States-A (Terry, Lane, Lane, & Keohane, 1999). The name of the measures was changed after Terry, Lane, and Fogarty (in press) provided evidence for validity among adults, hence the term adolescent no longer applies). The Brunel University Mood Rating Scale assesses six mood constructs; anger, confusion, depression, fatigue, tension, and vigor. Anger items include "annoyed" and "angry", confusion items include "mixed-up" and "uncertain", depression items include "miserable" and "downhearted", fatigue items include "tired" and "exhausted", tension items include "nervous" and "anxious", and vigor items include "alert" and "energetic". Items are rated on a 5-point scale anchored by 0 (not at all) to 4 (extremely).

The factorial validity of the Brunel University Mood Rating Scale was established using multisample confirmatory factor analysis (see Terry et al., 1999; Terry et al., in press). Research has lent general support to the notion that Brunel University Mood Rating Scale scores relate with other constructs consistently with theoretical predictions in exercise environments (Lane & Lovejoy, 2001). In addition, the measure contains only 24 items and is suitable for assessing mood in situations where brevity is important.

Dance Classes

Mood changes were assessed before and after two different styles of Contemporary Dance. The Graham technique is built upon the breathing cycle of the body and the concept of contraction and release. It places emphasis on a core of the body, the pelvis, and dancers are encouraged to always start movements from, and be directed by, this core. There is also a close relationship between breathing and feeling and movements are often angular in shape, static in nature and close to the ground. Bound, sharp and direct dynamic movement qualities are also integral to the Graham technique (Horosko, 1991).

In contrast, the Limon technique is based on the principles of swing, flow and suspension, exhibiting tension-free movement of the body and energy through space. It is characterized by light flowing fall and recovery movements that are more dynamic rather than static in nature (Scanlon & Hutchinson-Guest, 1989). Gestures are less stylized than they might be in the Graham technique, however, similarities between the two include the emphasis on breath control.

Procedure

Participants were asked to volunteer in a research program. Informed consent was obtained before testing. The third author collected data. Participants were asked to complete the Brunel University Mood Rating Scale immediately before and immediately after two different dance lessons. Participants completed the Brunel University Mood Rating Scale before and after a Limon dance class and before and after a Graham dance class. Participants completed the mood measure using a "How are you feeling right now?" response timeframe.

Both dance sessions were held after lunch, albeit on different days. The lesson following lunch was chosen to control for possible differences in mood due to time of the day (Hill & Hill, 1991). In addition, it was important that the session used for the research did not follow on immediately from a different lesson. Evidence shows that mood changes significantly following a lunch break, with generally more positive mood reported after lunch (Lane, Mills, & Terry, 1998). Data were analyzed using repeated measure MANOVA. Participants acted as their own control. We hypothesized that mood changes following dance sessions would be significantly greater following the Limon style of dance.

Results

Descriptive statistics for mood changes over time by dance class are contained in Table 1. Repeated Measures Multivariate Analysis of Variance was used to investigate mood changes pre and post class. Results indicated a significant interaction effect (Pillai's Trace _{6, 13} = .32, p < .01), and no significant main effect for mood changes either before and after each class (Pillai's Trace _{6, 13} = .16, p >.05), or between each class (Pillai's Trace _{6, 13} = .18, p > .05). Mood scores are reported in comparison to normative data for sport students away from competition, typically in a lecture environment. It is acknowledged that there are differences between dancers and sport students. However, using normative data provides a more meaningful way of interpreting data than using raw scores. Previous research has found that the normal mood for sports people is a positive mood when compared with students (see Terry & Lane, 2000). Data have been converted to standard T-score format (M = 50, SD = 10), making comparisons between mood scores for dancers and sport students possible. As Table 1 indicates, dancers reported average scores for anger, confusion, depression and tension within one standard deviation of the norm for sport students reported by Terry et al. (1999).

A comparison of mood changes over time by dance class indicated that a significant interaction effect was evidenced for vigor (F = 13.26, p < .01), whereby the increase in vigor was greater following the Limon Class than after the Graham class (see Figure 1).

Discussion

Findings from the present study show that dancers report mood enhancement following the Limon style of dance class as evidenced by increased vigor. The nature of the Limon dance class, characterized by light flowing movements might explain why there was an increase in vigor. By contrast, the Graham style, characterized by a bound style in which the movements are more isometric and angular in nature, was associated with reduced vigor. Given the potentially demanding nature of a dancer's training day, increased vigor following the Limon session suggests that a positive adaptation to training took place.

The Limon dance technique should lead to a maximizing effect on mood benefits. The Limon technique is concerned with relatively low-intensity actions based on the principles of swing and suspension. Berger and Motl (2000), in their summary of mood changes following exercise, argued that mood enhancement was greater after moderate exercise. This argument can also be used to explain findings for the Graham technique which – in contrast to the Limon style – involves more angular, isometric and unnatural movements. Hence, increased scores of rated vigor following the Limon technique may be attributed to the relaxed, flowing, tension-free, low-intensity movements associated with this dance style.

The existing research suggests that physical exercise, that is, dance classes, may be associated with short-term mood benefits. This needs to be investigated in the future, particularly in terms of mood change and duration of activity (Berger & Motl, 2000), that is, at maximal durational capabilities there are few mood benefits, and as these individuals are training to be professional dancers who are rehearsing for at least five hours a day how would that impact on the mood-enhancing benefits of dance? However, this study did not aim to address the long-term benefits of such exercise. In addition, it is not known how long vigor was elevated following the Limon technique class. Future research is needed to investigate the mood changes over a sustained period to evaluate more fully how dancers cope with the demands of classes.

In the present study there were no significant differences in the reduction of negative mood following either of the two technique styles of dance class. It should be noted that pre-dance class mood scores were average, and thus it is difficult to detect reductions in negative mood. It should be noted that standard deviation scores suggest some participants reported increased depression before and after the Limon and Graham dance styles. The variation in mood scores following dance styles suggests that some students were in a negative mood. If individuals perceive participating in dance as threatening, for the reason that it might involve some interpersonal competition (Berger & Motl, 2000), or a belief that important judgments were made about performance, they would experience negative mood states. It is possible that some students perceived the dance session as a success and others perceived it as a failure. It is suggested that future research examines cognitive and personal factors associated with mood changes in dance classes to gain a more in-depth understanding of factors associated with psychological responses to dance classes. Similarly, factors such as personality and previous experience might also influence the impact of exercise and dance on mood changes, and further research should address these issues.

In conclusion, the present study investigated mood changes following two different styles of modern dance. Findings show that dancers report improved mood following the Limon dance style. We suggest that future research investigates the cognitive and personal factors associated with mood changes in dance.

References

Beedie, C. J., Terry, P. C., & Lane, A. M. (2000). The profile of mood states and athletic performance: Two meta-analyses. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 12, 49-68.

Berger, B. G. (1996a). Psychological benefits of an active lifestyle: What we know and what we need to know. Quest, 48, 330-353.

Berger, B. G. (1996b). Coping with stress: The effectiveness of exercise and other techniques. Quest, 46, 100-119.

Berger, B. G., Friedman, E., & Eaton, M. (1988). Comparison of jogging, the relaxation response, and group interaction for stress reduction. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10, 431-437.

Berger, B. G., & Motl, R. W. (2000). Exercise and mood; A selective review and synthesis of research employing the Profile of Mood States. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 12, 69-92.

Berger, B. G., & Owen, D. R. (1988). Stress reduction and mood enhancement in four exercise modes: Swimming, body conditioning, Hatha yoga and fencing. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 59, 148-159.

Berger, B. G., & Owen, D. R. (1998). Relation of low and moderate intensity exercise with acute mood changes in college joggers. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 87, 611-621.

Brehm, J. W. (1999). The intensity of emotion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3, 2-22.

Hill, C. M., & Hill, D. W. (1991). Influence of time of day on responses to the Profile of Mood States. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 72, 434.

Horosko, M. (1991). Martha Graham: The evolution of her dance theory and training 1927-1991. USA: A Cappella.

Lane, A. M., & Lovejoy, D. J. (2001). The effects of exercise on mood changes: The moderating effect of depressed mood. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 41, 539-545.

Lane, A. M., Mills, M., & Terry, P. C. (1998). Mood regulation among corporate workers: Effects of exercise on mood. Journal of Sports Sciences, 16, 92.

McNair, D. M., Lorr, M., & Droppleman, L. F. (1971). Manual for the profile of mood states. San Diego, CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Services.

Parkinson, B., Totterdell, P., Briner, R. B., & Reynolds, S. (1996). Changing moods: The psychology of mood and mood regulation. London: Longman.

Scanlon, J., & Hutchinson-Guest, A. (1989). Limon based modern dance technique. London: Cevera Press.

Terry, P. C. (1995). The efficacy of mood state profiling with elite performers: A review and synthesis. The Sport Psychologist, 9, 309-324.

Terry, P. C., & Lane, A. M. (2000). Normative values for the Profile of Mood States for use with athletic samples. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 12, 93-109.

Terry, P. C., Lane, A. M., & Fogarty, G. (In press). Construct validity of the Profile of Mood States-A for use with adults. Psychology of Sport and Exercise.

Terry, P. C., Lane, A. M., Lane, H. J., & Keohane, L. (1999). Development and validation of a mood measure for adolescents. Journal of Sports Sciences, 17, 861-872.

Thayer, R. E., Newman, J. R., & McClain, T. M. (1994). Self-regulation of mood: Strategies for changing bad mood, raising energy and reducing tension. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 910-925.

Beedie, C. J., Terry, P. C., & Lane, A. M. (2000). The profile of mood states and athletic performance: Two meta-analyses. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 12, 49-68.

Berger, B. G. (1996a). Psychological benefits of an active lifestyle: What we know and what we need to know. Quest, 48, 330-353.

Berger, B. G. (1996b). Coping with stress: The effectiveness of exercise and other techniques. Quest, 46, 100-119.

Berger, B. G., Friedman, E., & Eaton, M. (1988). Comparison of jogging, the relaxation response, and group interaction for stress reduction. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10, 431-437.

Berger, B. G., & Motl, R. W. (2000). Exercise and mood; A selective review and synthesis of research employing the Profile of Mood States. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 12, 69-92.

Berger, B. G., & Owen, D. R. (1988). Stress reduction and mood enhancement in four exercise modes: Swimming, body conditioning, Hatha yoga and fencing. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 59, 148-159.

Berger, B. G., & Owen, D. R. (1998). Relation of low and moderate intensity exercise with acute mood changes in college joggers. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 87, 611-621.

Brehm, J. W. (1999). The intensity of emotion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3, 2-22.

Hill, C. M., & Hill, D. W. (1991). Influence of time of day on responses to the Profile of Mood States. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 72, 434.

Horosko, M. (1991). Martha Graham: The evolution of her dance theory and training 1927-1991. USA: A Cappella.

Lane, A. M., & Lovejoy, D. J. (2001). The effects of exercise on mood changes: The moderating effect of depressed mood. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 41, 539-545.

Lane, A. M., Mills, M., & Terry, P. C. (1998). Mood regulation among corporate workers: Effects of exercise on mood. Journal of Sports Sciences, 16, 92.

McNair, D. M., Lorr, M., & Droppleman, L. F. (1971). Manual for the profile of mood states. San Diego, CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Services.

Parkinson, B., Totterdell, P., Briner, R. B., & Reynolds, S. (1996). Changing moods: The psychology of mood and mood regulation. London: Longman.

Scanlon, J., & Hutchinson-Guest, A. (1989). Limon based modern dance technique. London: Cevera Press.

Terry, P. C. (1995). The efficacy of mood state profiling with elite performers: A review and synthesis. The Sport Psychologist, 9, 309-324.

Terry, P. C., & Lane, A. M. (2000). Normative values for the Profile of Mood States for use with athletic samples. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 12, 93-109.

Terry, P. C., Lane, A. M., & Fogarty, G. (In press). Construct validity of the Profile of Mood States-A for use with adults. Psychology of Sport and Exercise.

Terry, P. C., Lane, A. M., Lane, H. J., & Keohane, L. (1999). Development and validation of a mood measure for adolescents. Journal of Sports Sciences, 17, 861-872.

Thayer, R. E., Newman, J. R., & McClain, T. M. (1994). Self-regulation of mood: Strategies for changing bad mood, raising energy and reducing tension. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 910-925.

Appreciation is due to reviewers including Dr. Marc Jones

Senior Lecturer in Sport Psychology

Sport

Health and Exercise

Staffordshire University

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Dr. Andrew Lane, School of Sport, Performing Arts, and Leisure, University of Wolverhampton, Gorway Road, Walsall, WS1 3BD, United Kingdom. Phone: 44-1902-322862; Fax:44-1902-323230; Email: A.M.Lane2@ wlv.ac.uk