Emotional labor refers to individuals’ management of emotional displays in order to actively portray socially and organizationally desired emotions during job-related interactions (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993). Although emotional labor is primarily a service-industry phenomenon, emotional labor research has been conducted among a broad range of occupations, including airlines (Hochschild, 1983), nursing (De Jonge, Le Blanc, Peeters, & Noordam, 2008), call centers (Holman, Chissick, & Totterdell, 2002), hospitality (Chu & Murrmann, 2006), and tourism (Van Dijk & Kirk, 2008). Most researchers have focused on the private sector. In recent years, emotional labor research has gained significant attention from public administration scholars (Hsieh, Yang, & Fu, 2012). Researchers have also focused on examining individual antecedents or outcomes related to emotional labor in the public sector. However, assessing interpersonal relationships that arise during work-related interactions between colleagues is rare (Robinson, Wang, & Kiewitz, 2014).

Emotional displays serve an important function during social interactions (Côté, 2005). Emotions presented by a focal person (at the center of activity) are subject to interpretation and feedback by interaction partners, thereby creating a dual social process (Côté, 2005). The display of positive emotions is related to better social interactions that may promote coworker trust, affective rewards, and/or job support (Chen & Peng, 2008). In line with this interactive view of emotions, we investigated the interactional dynamics of emotional labor between school personnel officials as senders and teachers as receivers. We assessed how personnel officials’ emotional displays corresponded to teachers’ perceptions of personnel officials’ emotional labor. This was done to examine how these effects influenced teachers’ perceptions of guanxi, a Chinese concept of personal relationships, with their school’s personnel officials.

Literature Review

Emotional Labor

According to Ashforth and Humphrey (1993) and Hochschild (1983), there are several emotional labor strategies. We focused mainly on surface and deep acting. Surface acting involves the modification of emotional expressions without feeling that emotion (Hochschild, 1983). It is most often concerned with masking negative emotions such as anger, sadness, and annoyance. Deep acting focuses on modifying one’s inner feelings in order to arouse the desired emotions or match display rules by attending to positive aspects of a situation (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Grandey, 2003).

Deep acting should promote a positive relationship between prosocial motivation and performance, whereas surface acting should damage this relationship. Researchers have shown that surface and deep acting are negatively and positively related to job satisfaction, respectively, and that job characteristics are moderated by these relationships (Jiang, Jiang, & Park, 2013). Neuroticism is associated more with surface acting and less with deep acting. Furthermore, job feedback can sometimes fully mediate the relationship between neuroticism and deep acting (Zhong, Cao, Huo, Chen, & Lam, 2012). Noor and Zainuddin (2011) found that surface acting was positively associated with emotional exhaustion and depersonalization. Additionally, Maneotis, Grandey, and Krauss (2014) revealed a dampening effect related to surface acting, such that surface acting buffers those with low prosocial motives. However, the amplifying effect of deep acting was not observed.

Parkinson, Fischer, and Manstead (2005) suggested that many emotions serve interpersonal functions by affecting others’ reactions. According to social exchange theory, people aim their reciprocation efforts toward the source from which benefits were obtained (Blau, 1964). Therefore, personnel officials’ emotional displays toward teachers might have an important impact on both personnel officials and teachers. Thus, we deduced that teachers would perceive an emotional display as authentic if the personnel official performs deep acting. Conversely, when the personnel official performs surface acting, teachers might perceive the personnel official as being inauthentic.
Hypothesis 1: When a personnel official performs deep acting, teachers will be more likely than not to perceive the personnel official’s deep acting.
Hypothesis 2: When a personnel official performs surface acting, teachers will be more likely than not to perceive the personnel official’s surface acting.

Guanxi

Guanxi, the traditional Chinese concept of personal relationships and their development, is defined as personal closeness and is composed of three components: trust (cognition-based), feelings (affect-based), and instrumental (Chen & Peng, 2008). Guanxi fits well with Yang’s (1993) categories of jia ren (familial), shou ren (acquaintance), and sheng ren (stranger) relationships within grades of Chinese culture. At work, coworker relationships tend to fall into the acquaintance category, which combines the affective and instrumental components (Mao, Peng, & Wong, 2012). Employees collaborating to accomplish a job reflect the instrumental component. This collaboration can evoke positive feelings toward colleagues while at work. Outside of work, social activities might develop interpersonal bonds of affection (Chen & Peng, 2008). Guanxi quality, based on self-perceptions of the other individual having certain abilities and abiding by social norms to return favors when needed, can be established through long-term exchange of reciprocal favors and modifies the time spent interacting (Bedford, 2011). Guanxi explains the significant variance in coworker support, life satisfaction, and self-attributions for life success (Taormina & Gao, 2010), and mediates the relationship between affectivity and job satisfaction (Zhai, Lindorff, & Cooper, 2013). Guanxi has also been shown to mediate the positive relationship between an employee’s knowledge-sharing and innovative service behaviors (Hu, 2009). There are differences in how supervisors in Taiwan and the US display guanxi-based trust: Taiwanese supervisors display affect-based trust related to guanxi closeness with subordinates, whereas in the US, supervisors display cognition-based trust toward subordinates primarily based on a subordinate’s competence (Hu, 2007).

Relationships Between Emotional Labor and Guanxi Among Personnel Officials in Taiwan

In the Taiwanese elementary and secondary educational systems, personnel officials belong to the civil-service system. These officials serve a staff function as school administrators but are affiliated with, and supervised by, the personnel department of the city or county government. Personnel officials’ roles in the school sometimes lead to conflict with teachers. Therefore, teachers generally view personnel officials as outsiders. Personnel officials’ common duties in the school require engaging in personal contact with teachers. Therefore, appropriate emotional display strategies are necessary for their work. Researchers have shown that emotions are thought to have significant social functions and are an important part of organizational life, affecting individuals both on the intrapersonal level and in interpersonal relationships (Côté, 2005; Parkinson et al., 2005). Emotion is thought to have a social function, operating as a source of information that receivers use to form judgments. In affect-as-information theory it is held that people’s emotions derive from social information, which, in turn, will affect behavior and decision making (Van Kleef, de Dreu, & Manstead, 2004). Therefore, the expression of positive emotions could increase coworker support (Staw, Sutton, & Pelled, 1994).

Perceived authenticity might also influence the favorability of teachers’ impressions and foster guanxi (Lin, Chang, Liu, Lin, & Chen, 2009) with personnel officials. Guanxi is a very important interpersonal interaction within Chinese culture and is considered a network of personally defined reciprocal bonds (Redding, Norman, & Schiander, 1994).
Hypothesis 3: Teachers’ perceptions of a personnel official’s deep acting will strengthen their guanxi with the personnel official to a greater extent than when they perceive a personnel official to be surface acting.

Method

Participants

Data were collected from personnel officials and teachers working at 140 primary schools and 52 junior high schools in Kaohsiung City. Two researchers independently surveyed personnel officials and teachers. One collected personnel official data, the other collected teacher data. For each school, three teachers were recruited to complete the survey. Survey forms were mailed to participants. We matched personnel official and teacher data with the school code. Out of 192 personnel officials, 165 returned completed surveys (overall response rate = 86%). A total of 490 teachers among 576 samples completed the questionnaire, an average of 2.96 teachers from each school (overall response rate = 85%). Of the participants, 63.5% were women, and 36.5% were men. In terms of age, 5.1% were ≤ 30 years, 42.0% were between 31 and 39 years, 41.4% were between 41 and 49 years, and 11.4% were ≥50 years. In terms of position, 19.6% were directors, 38.0% were head teachers, 26.7% were homeroom teachers, and 15.7% were subject teachers.

Measures

Our personnel official survey contained subscales assessing deep and surface acting from the Emotional Labor Scale (ELS), a self-report instrument originally developed by Brotheridge and Lee (2003). We also assessed demographic variables (gender, education, and age). Each subscale consisted of three items. Items were rated on a scale from 1 (never) to 6 (always). A sample item for surface acting read, “Pretend to have emotions that I don’t really have,” and for deep acting, “Make an effort to actually feel the emotions that I need to display to teachers.”

We used back-translation by a bilingual professor of the Department of Applied Foreign Languages in the National Taiwan University of Science and Technology to ensure that these items were translated correctly. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) showed that the six items loaded onto two components. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the deep acting and surface acting subscales were .79 and .89, respectively, indicating good reliability.

The teacher survey contained perceptions of personnel officials’ emotional labor, an item on guanxi, and a section on demographic variables (gender, education, and age). Teachers’ perceptions of personnel officials’ emotional labor were assessed using 2, three-item measures from the ELS (Brotheridge & Lee, 2003). Items were slightly reworded to capture teachers’ perceptions. A sample item for deep acting was, “I believe that our personnel officer makes an effort to actually feel the emotions that s/he needs to display to teachers,” and for surface acting, “I think that our personnel official pretends to have emotions that s/he doesn’t really have.” EFA also indicated a two-factor structure, meaning that these items retained the same meanings as revealed in the personnel official survey. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were .86 for both the deep acting and surface acting subscales, indicating good reliability. Additionally, teachers measured perceived guanxi with their school’s personnel officials. Guanxi was measured on a 6-point graphical, semantic scale ranging from 6 (closest relationship) to 1 (most distant relationship; Lin et al., 2009). In terms of the research by Lin et al. (2009), this one-item scale can discriminate outsiders and insiders, can predict procedural justice within an organization, and has positive associations with affective trust. This suggests that the scale can be used as a valid test of differential relationships within the environment of a Chinese culture.

Data Analysis

Because of the use of nested data in our study (teachers were nested in terms of their individual personnel official), the assumption of independence required for traditional regression analyses was violated. As hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) has been suggested for dealing with nested data (Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002), we performed a series of HLM analyses to assess the relationship between the independent and dependent variables of interest. As the number of level 2 units was large enough (n = 165), maximum likelihood estimation with random intercepts was used (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). The following control variables were used: teachers’ demographic characteristics, including gender (0 = male, 1 = female), level of education (0 = university or below, 1 = graduate), and age, as well as personnel officials’ demographic characteristics, including gender (0 = male 1 = female), level of education (coded as 1 = high school, 2 = community college, 3 = university, 4 = graduate), and age.

Results

Results presented in Table 1 are the means, standard deviations, and correlations among the research variables. As expected, there were positive correlations between personnel officials’ reports of deep acting and teachers’ perceptions of deep acting, as well as between personnel officials’ reports of surface acting and teachers’ perceptions of surface acting. Correlations between personnel officials’ reports of deep acting and teachers’ perceptions of surface acting and between personnel officials’ reports of surface acting and teachers’ perceptions of deep acting, were not significant. Personnel officials’ reports of deep acting and surface acting were positively correlated with guanxi. Teachers’ perceptions of deep acting and teachers’ perceptions of surface acting were also positively correlated with guanxi.

In Table 2 results are presented from the HLM analyses predicting teachers’ perceptions of emotional labor. These analyses were performed to examine the cross-level predictions of personnel officials’ reports of emotional labor strategies (deep acting and surface acting, level 2 variables) on teachers’ perceptions of emotional labor strategies (level 1 variables) while controlling for teacher gender, education, and age. There was a statistically significant relationship with deep acting reported by personnel officials and teachers’ perceptions of deep acting but no statistically significant relationship with surface acting reported by personnel officials and teachers’ perceptions of deep acting. There was a statistically significant relationship with surface acting reported by personnel officials and teachers’ perceptions of surface acting and no statistically significant relationship with deep acting reported by personnel officials and teachers’ perceptions of surface acting. In Table 3 the results show that perceived deep acting was significantly and positively related to guanxi, but surface acting was not significantly related to guanxi.

Discussion

We investigated the relationship between personnel officials’ emotional acting and teachers’ perceptions of personnel officials’ emotional displays. This was done to understand teachers’ perception of guanxi with their school’s personnel officials in Taiwanese public elementary schools and junior high schools. The predicted relationships between the types of emotional labor-based acting displayed by personnel officials and teachers’ perceptions (see Figure 1) were confirmed. The results illustrate that the type of acting performed by personnel officials was significantly related to teachers’ perceptions of the same type of acting. Hypotheses 1 and 2 were fully supported. Furthermore, perceived deep acting among teachers was significantly and positively associated with guanxi, but perceived surface acting was not significantly associated with guanxi, suggesting support for Hypothesis 3.

The results show that no matter the type of acting personnel officials performed, teachers could perceive the behaviors. The proposed school system benefits of personnel officials’ deep acting are based on the assumption that teachers can perceive differences between surface and deep acting (Grandey, Fisk, Mattila, Jansen, & Sideman, 2005). Consistent with the views of Ekman (2003) and Hennig-Thurau, Groth, Paul, and Gremler (2006), it appears that no matter the emotional labor strategy senders choose, their true emotions are often revealed to and can be detected by receivers. Thus, authentic displays lead to favorable responses by the receiver, and inauthentic displays result in unfavorable responses (Côté, 2005).

Furthermore, when teachers perceived personnel officials as authentic, teachers were more likely to strengthen guanxi with their school’s personnel officials compared to when teachers perceived personnel officials’ displays as inauthentic. Thus, teachers perceived that positive guanxi with personnel officials should induce benefits (i.e., storing up political capital with personnel officials). This result is in line with Grandey’s (2003) work showing the positive benefits of deep acting among workers and that of Chen and Peng (2008) who showed the evocation of positive feelings toward colleagues at work. This can also lead to the development of interpersonal bonds of affection during social activities outside of work. Van Gelderen, Konijn, and Bakker (2011) showed that the display of positive emotions is positively related to perceived authenticity, which should be positively related to perceived performance success. Thus, expression of positive emotions should increase coworker support (Staw et al., 1994).

We have provided several implications for theory and practice. First, no previous researchers have empirically examined the association between emotional labor strategies and interpersonal relationships using the concept of guanxi. Second, a key practical implication of the present study is that performing deep acting is a good way to establish better interpersonal relationships. Specific to our study, teachers are better able to understand personnel officials’ roles, even if these officials are considered to be outsiders in the school setting.

Some limitations in the present study should be noted. First, it was conducted with a specific occupational group, namely personnel officials. Hence, these results might not be applicable to other service professions requiring emotional labor. Second, we chose schools on the basis of accessibility (i.e., the sample was not drawn at random). Third, we relied on participants’ self-reports regarding emotional labor; thus, information provided might not be reflective of people’s true behaviors. Some teachers or personnel officials may have tried to present themselves in a more positive light (e.g., by not admitting to faking emotions). Hence, social desirability variables should be addressed and controlled for in future studies. Finally, the cross-sectional nature of our study limits inferences of causality. With regard to this limitation, a longitudinal study would have been more productive, as it can offer a better understanding of gradually developing processes related to interactional dynamics involving emotional labor.

References

Ashforth, B., & Humphrey, R. (1993). Emotional labor in service roles: The influence of identity. Academy of Management Review, 18, 88-115. http://doi.org/bs873v

Bedford, O. (2011). Guanxi-building in the workplace: A dynamic process model of working and backdoor guanxi. Journal of Business Ethics, 104, 149-158. http://doi.org/cvgjsj

Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York: Wiley.

Brotheridge, C. M., & Lee, R. T. (2003). Development and validation of the Emotional Labor Scale. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 76, 365-379. http://doi.org/czk

Chen, X.-P., & Peng, S. (2008). Guanxi dynamics: Shifts in the closeness of ties between Chinese coworkers. Management and Organization Review, 4, 63-80. http://doi.org/b2hjww

Chu, K., & Murrmann, S. (2006). Development and validation of the Hospitality Emotional Labor Scale. Tourism Management, 27, 1181-1191. http://doi.org/dndvrm

Côté, S. (2005). A social interaction model of the effects of emotion regulation on work strain. Academy of Management Review, 30, 509-530. http://doi.org/fjs2d8

De Jonge, J., Le Blanc, P. M., Peeters, M. C. W., & Noordam, H. (2008). Emotional job demands and the role of matching job resources: A cross-sectional survey study among health care workers. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 45, 1460-1469. http://doi.org/dn47jf

Ekman, P. (2003). Emotions revealed: Recognizing faces and feelings to improve communication and emotional life. New York: Henry Holt.

Grandey, A. A. (2003). When “the show must go on”: Surface acting and deep acting as determinants of emotional exhaustion and peer-rated service delivery. Academy of Management Journal, 46, 86-96. http://doi.org/cbz6gz

Grandey, A. A., Fisk, G. M., Mattila, A. S., Jansen, K. J., & Sideman, L. A. (2005). Is ‘‘service with a smile’’ enough? Authenticity of positive displays during service encounters. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 96, 38-55. http://doi.org/c2qk4m

Hennig-Thurau, T., Groth, M., Paul, M., & Gremler, D. D. (2006). Are all smiles created equal? How emotional contagion and emotional labor affect service relationships. Journal of Marketing, 70, 58-73. http://doi.org/chj6n9

Hochschild, A. (1983). The managed heart: Commercialization of human feeling. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Holman, D., Chissick, C., & Totterdell, P. (2002). The effects of performance monitoring on emotional labor and well-being in call centers. Motivation and Emotion, 26, 57-81. http://doi.org/fmrjxw

Hsieh, C.-W., Yang, K., & Fu, K.-J. (2012). Motivational bases and emotional labor: Assessing the impact of public service motivation. Public Administration Review, 72, 241-251. http://doi.org/fxw3fk

Hu, H.-H. (2007). A comparative study of the effects of Taiwan-United States employee categorization on supervisor trust. Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal, 35, 229-242. http://doi.org/brnvxh

Hu, M.-L. (2009). Knowledge sharing and innovative service behavior relationship: Guanxi as mediator. Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal, 37, 977-992. http://doi.org/2gb

Jiang, X., Jiang, Z., & Park, D. S. (2013). Emotional labor strategy and job satisfaction: A Chinese perspective. Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal, 41, 933-938. http://doi.org/2gc

Lin, C. W., Chang, K. I., Liu, C. Y., Lin, C. S., & Chen, S. H. (2009). Effect of leader’s differential management on subordinates’ justice attitudes and political behaviors [In Chinese]. Indigenous Psychological Research in Chinese Societies, 31, 147-175. http://doi.org/28m

Maneotis, S. M., Grandey, A. A., & Krauss, A. D. (2014). Understanding the “Why” as well as the “How”: Service performance is a function of prosocial motives and emotional labor. Human Performance, 27, 80-97. http://doi.org/2gd

Mao, Y., Peng, K. Z., & Wong, C.-S. (2012). Indigenous research on Asia: In search of the emic components of guanxi. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 29, 1143-1168. http://doi.org/28k

Noor, N. M., & Zainuddin, M. (2011). Emotional labor and burnout among female teachers: Work– family conflict as mediator. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 14, 283-293. http://doi.org/brwbff

Parkinson, B., Fischer, A. H., & Manstead, A. R. (2005). Emotion in social relations: Cultural, group, and interpersonal processes. New York: Psychology Press.

Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Redding, S. G., Norman, A., & Schiander, A. (1994). The nature of individual attachment to the organization: A review of East Asia variations. In M. D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 647-688). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Robinson, S. L., Wang, W., & Kiewitz, C. (2014). Coworkers behaving badly: The impact of coworker deviant behavior upon individual employees. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1, 123-143. http://doi.org/28n

Staw, B. M., Sutton, R. I., & Pelled, L. H. (1994). Employee positive emotion and favorable outcomes at the workplace. Organization Science, 5, 51-71. http://doi.org/fnbv3b

Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Taormina, R. J., & Gao, J. H. (2010). A research model for guanxi behavior: Antecedents, measures, and outcomes of Chinese social networking. Social Science Research, 39, 1195-1212. http://doi.org/dfwj63

Van Dijk, P. A., & Kirk, A. (2008). Emotional labor and tourism-based visitor interactions: Job characteristics as determinants of emotion regulation. Tourism Analysis, 13, 233-243. http://doi.org/cwkcmk

Van Gelderen, B. R., Konijn, E. A., & Bakker, A. B. (2011). Emotional labor among trainee police officers: The interpersonal role of positive emotions. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 6, 163-172. http://doi.org/cjk32m

Van Kleef, G. A., de Dreu, C. K.W., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2004). The interpersonal effects of anger and happiness in negotiations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 57-76. http://doi.org/fp4gcb

Yang, K. S. (1993). Chinese social orientation: A social dynamic perspective [In Chinese]. In K. S. Yang & A. P. Yu (Eds.), Chinese psychology and behavior – theory and methodology (pp. 87-142). Taipei: Kui Kwan Publishing.

Zhai, Q., Lindorff, M., & Cooper, B. (2013). Workplace guanxi: Its dispositional antecedents and mediating role in the affectivity–job satisfaction relationship. Journal of Business Ethics, 117, 541-551. http://doi.org/2gf

Zhong, J. A., Cao, Z.-L., Huo, Y., Chen, Z., & Lam, W. (2012). The mediating role of job feedback in the relationship between neuroticism and emotional labor. Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal, 40, 649-655. http://doi.org/2gg

Ashforth, B., & Humphrey, R. (1993). Emotional labor in service roles: The influence of identity. Academy of Management Review, 18, 88-115. http://doi.org/bs873v

Bedford, O. (2011). Guanxi-building in the workplace: A dynamic process model of working and backdoor guanxi. Journal of Business Ethics, 104, 149-158. http://doi.org/cvgjsj

Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York: Wiley.

Brotheridge, C. M., & Lee, R. T. (2003). Development and validation of the Emotional Labor Scale. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 76, 365-379. http://doi.org/czk

Chen, X.-P., & Peng, S. (2008). Guanxi dynamics: Shifts in the closeness of ties between Chinese coworkers. Management and Organization Review, 4, 63-80. http://doi.org/b2hjww

Chu, K., & Murrmann, S. (2006). Development and validation of the Hospitality Emotional Labor Scale. Tourism Management, 27, 1181-1191. http://doi.org/dndvrm

Côté, S. (2005). A social interaction model of the effects of emotion regulation on work strain. Academy of Management Review, 30, 509-530. http://doi.org/fjs2d8

De Jonge, J., Le Blanc, P. M., Peeters, M. C. W., & Noordam, H. (2008). Emotional job demands and the role of matching job resources: A cross-sectional survey study among health care workers. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 45, 1460-1469. http://doi.org/dn47jf

Ekman, P. (2003). Emotions revealed: Recognizing faces and feelings to improve communication and emotional life. New York: Henry Holt.

Grandey, A. A. (2003). When “the show must go on”: Surface acting and deep acting as determinants of emotional exhaustion and peer-rated service delivery. Academy of Management Journal, 46, 86-96. http://doi.org/cbz6gz

Grandey, A. A., Fisk, G. M., Mattila, A. S., Jansen, K. J., & Sideman, L. A. (2005). Is ‘‘service with a smile’’ enough? Authenticity of positive displays during service encounters. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 96, 38-55. http://doi.org/c2qk4m

Hennig-Thurau, T., Groth, M., Paul, M., & Gremler, D. D. (2006). Are all smiles created equal? How emotional contagion and emotional labor affect service relationships. Journal of Marketing, 70, 58-73. http://doi.org/chj6n9

Hochschild, A. (1983). The managed heart: Commercialization of human feeling. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Holman, D., Chissick, C., & Totterdell, P. (2002). The effects of performance monitoring on emotional labor and well-being in call centers. Motivation and Emotion, 26, 57-81. http://doi.org/fmrjxw

Hsieh, C.-W., Yang, K., & Fu, K.-J. (2012). Motivational bases and emotional labor: Assessing the impact of public service motivation. Public Administration Review, 72, 241-251. http://doi.org/fxw3fk

Hu, H.-H. (2007). A comparative study of the effects of Taiwan-United States employee categorization on supervisor trust. Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal, 35, 229-242. http://doi.org/brnvxh

Hu, M.-L. (2009). Knowledge sharing and innovative service behavior relationship: Guanxi as mediator. Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal, 37, 977-992. http://doi.org/2gb

Jiang, X., Jiang, Z., & Park, D. S. (2013). Emotional labor strategy and job satisfaction: A Chinese perspective. Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal, 41, 933-938. http://doi.org/2gc

Lin, C. W., Chang, K. I., Liu, C. Y., Lin, C. S., & Chen, S. H. (2009). Effect of leader’s differential management on subordinates’ justice attitudes and political behaviors [In Chinese]. Indigenous Psychological Research in Chinese Societies, 31, 147-175. http://doi.org/28m

Maneotis, S. M., Grandey, A. A., & Krauss, A. D. (2014). Understanding the “Why” as well as the “How”: Service performance is a function of prosocial motives and emotional labor. Human Performance, 27, 80-97. http://doi.org/2gd

Mao, Y., Peng, K. Z., & Wong, C.-S. (2012). Indigenous research on Asia: In search of the emic components of guanxi. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 29, 1143-1168. http://doi.org/28k

Noor, N. M., & Zainuddin, M. (2011). Emotional labor and burnout among female teachers: Work– family conflict as mediator. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 14, 283-293. http://doi.org/brwbff

Parkinson, B., Fischer, A. H., & Manstead, A. R. (2005). Emotion in social relations: Cultural, group, and interpersonal processes. New York: Psychology Press.

Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Redding, S. G., Norman, A., & Schiander, A. (1994). The nature of individual attachment to the organization: A review of East Asia variations. In M. D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 647-688). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Robinson, S. L., Wang, W., & Kiewitz, C. (2014). Coworkers behaving badly: The impact of coworker deviant behavior upon individual employees. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1, 123-143. http://doi.org/28n

Staw, B. M., Sutton, R. I., & Pelled, L. H. (1994). Employee positive emotion and favorable outcomes at the workplace. Organization Science, 5, 51-71. http://doi.org/fnbv3b

Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Taormina, R. J., & Gao, J. H. (2010). A research model for guanxi behavior: Antecedents, measures, and outcomes of Chinese social networking. Social Science Research, 39, 1195-1212. http://doi.org/dfwj63

Van Dijk, P. A., & Kirk, A. (2008). Emotional labor and tourism-based visitor interactions: Job characteristics as determinants of emotion regulation. Tourism Analysis, 13, 233-243. http://doi.org/cwkcmk

Van Gelderen, B. R., Konijn, E. A., & Bakker, A. B. (2011). Emotional labor among trainee police officers: The interpersonal role of positive emotions. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 6, 163-172. http://doi.org/cjk32m

Van Kleef, G. A., de Dreu, C. K.W., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2004). The interpersonal effects of anger and happiness in negotiations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 57-76. http://doi.org/fp4gcb

Yang, K. S. (1993). Chinese social orientation: A social dynamic perspective [In Chinese]. In K. S. Yang & A. P. Yu (Eds.), Chinese psychology and behavior – theory and methodology (pp. 87-142). Taipei: Kui Kwan Publishing.

Zhai, Q., Lindorff, M., & Cooper, B. (2013). Workplace guanxi: Its dispositional antecedents and mediating role in the affectivity–job satisfaction relationship. Journal of Business Ethics, 117, 541-551. http://doi.org/2gf

Zhong, J. A., Cao, Z.-L., Huo, Y., Chen, Z., & Lam, W. (2012). The mediating role of job feedback in the relationship between neuroticism and emotional labor. Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal, 40, 649-655. http://doi.org/2gg

Her-Ran Liou, Graduate School of Management, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, No. 43, Section 4, Keelung Rd., Da’an District, Taipei 106, Taiwan, ROC. Email: [email protected]