In his attachment theory, Bowlby (1969/1982) posits that early experiences with primary caregivers are critical for human emotional and cognitive development. Although attachment behaviors in early childhood are particularly prominent, attachment is an important component of human experience from the cradle to the grave (Bowlby, 1979). Hazan and Shaver (1987) extended attachment theory to adult romantic relationships, and conceptualized romantic love, or pair bonding, as an attachment process. Following on from Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, and Wall (1978), subsequent researchers revealed that attachment orientations in adulthood can be measured along two orthogonal dimensions: anxiety and avoidance (e.g., Bartholomew & Shaver, 1998), and each attachment orientation was connected with a unique pattern of emotion regulation (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007).

Subjective well-being (SWB) is defined as individuals’ evaluations of their lives, according to dimensions including life satisfaction, pleasant affect, and infrequent unpleasant affect (Diener, 1994). Researchers have shown that attachment theory is a valid framework for understanding individual variations in happiness (Mikulincer, Shaver, & Pereg, 2003), and many have provided empirical evidence to support the idea that good quality family relationships may contribute to a sense of well-being. For example, secure attachment has been found to be positively correlated with well-being (Abubakar et al., 2013), whereas attachment anxiety and avoidance both have been demonstrated to be negatively correlated with life satisfaction and well-being (Lavy & Littman-Ovadia, 2011).

According to Salovey and Mayer (1989), emotional intelligence (EI) consists of three categories of adaptive abilities: appraisal and expression of emotion, regulation of emotion, and utilization of emotion in solving problems. Researchers have long proposed that adult attachment orientations exert considerable influence over EI (e.g., Kim, 2005), and, as a set of abilities to process and understand emotions, EI has an important impact on an individual’s happiness level (e.g., Schutte & Malouff, 2011).

Global self-esteem is conceptualized as an individual’s positive or negative attitude toward the self as a totality, and this attitude has an important influence on individual behavior and mental health (Rosenberg, 1965). It has been proposed that attachment experiences are important for the shaping of individuals’ self-image, and ultimately influence their ability to regulate emotion (e.g., Bowlby, 1973). Likewise, in the past few decades, researchers have stressed the importance of self-esteem influencing happiness, and view self-esteem as one of the strongest predictor variables of well-being (e.g., Diener & Diener, 1995). Although previous researchers have shown the direct association of adult attachment orientations with SWB (e.g., Abubakar et al., 2013), little is known about the mechanisms underlying them. Therefore, in this study, we built a multiple mediation model based on attachment theory, especially the role of adult attachment in emotion regulation (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). We hypothesized that (a) EI and self-esteem would mediate the negative association between adult attachment orientations and SWB, and (b) a serial mediating role of EI via self-esteem would be found in this link.

Method

Participants and Procedure

Using cluster random sampling method, we recruited 585 undergraduates (315 men and 270 women aged 17 to 25 years, M = 20.00, SD = 1.11), from South China Normal University and Guangdong University of Petrochemical Technology. We administered the questionnaires during the class break, and they were returned on the spot. Because the whole questionnaire included five sections, participants completed the paper-and-pencil version in two phases, with an interval of almost two weeks between each, to ensure test quality. Standardized instructions were given in each test phase, and participants were asked to make their self-evaluation independently. The study was conducted in accordance with applicable ethics regulations, and participants obtained credit points in exchange for participating.

Measures

Experiences in Close Relationship Scale (ECR; Brennan, Clark, & Shaver, 1998). Adult attachment orientations were measured by the Chinese version (Li & Kato, 2006) of the 36-item self-report ECR, which is used to assess two dimensions: anxiety and avoidance. Reponses were rated on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Brennan et al. reported internally reliable scores. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were high for both anxiety (.87) and avoidance (.79) in this study. In addition, as recommended by Matsunaga (2008), we adopted the factorial algorithm procedure to create three-item parcels for each attachment orientation.

Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SREIT; Schutte et al., 1998). EI was measured by the Chinese version (Zheng, Gu, & Zhu, 2009) of the 33-item SREIT, which is based on Salovey and Mayer’s (1989/1990) original model of EI. In subsequent studies, four factors of EI were assessed: (a) perceiving emotion, (b) using emotion to facilitate thought, (c) understanding emotion, and (d) managing emotion (e.g., Zheng et al., 2009). Individuals’ current state of emotional development was measured with responses on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Previous researchers have reported internally reliable scores (Schutte & Malouff, 2011; Zheng et al., 2009). In this study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were also acceptable for the whole scale (.85) and the subscales (.62 to .76).

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE; Rosenberg, 1965). Self-esteem was measured by the Chinese version (Wang, Wang, & Ma, 1999) of the 10-item RSE, a widely used and well validated measure of individuals’ global self-esteem (Yan & Zheng, 2006). Responses were measured on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .88 in this study. In addition, we adopted item parceling strategies and created two-item parcels.

Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985). SWB was measured by the Chinese version (Yan & Zheng, 2006) of the SWLS and the Chinese version (Yan & Zheng, 2006) of the Frequency of Experienced Emotions Scale (FOEES; Kuppens, Ceulemans, Timmerman, Diener, & Kim-Prieto, 2006). The widely used SWLS is a five-item self-report measure of overall satisfaction with life, with responses measured on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Data were analyzed from a large-scale study, the International College Survey (ICS, 2001), for the 14-item self-report FOEES which measures individuals’ frequency of positive and negative emotions. Responses were measured on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (all the time). In mainland China, these scales are the most widely used combination measuring SWB, and have been shown to be highly reliable and valid (e.g., Dou, Nie, Wang, Liu, & Li, 2013). In this study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the SWLS, and the positive and negative emotions subscales of FOEES were .79, .81, and .79, respectively.

Statistical Analyses

In this study, the mediating roles of EI and self-esteem in the association between adult attachment orientations and SWB were estimated using the maximum likelihood method and the bootstrap method in Mplus version 7.0 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2012).

Bias-corrected bootstrapping is a nonparametric resampling procedure (Shrout & Bolger, 2002), which involves repeatedly sampling from the data set and estimating the indirect effect in each resampled data set (5,000 bootstrap resamples). According to Shrout and Bolger’s (2002) recommendation, if the 95% confidence intervals for the average estimates do not contain zero, it can be concluded that the indirect effect is statistically significant at p < .05.

Results

Descriptive Statistics

Means, standard deviations, reliabilities, and correlations for all variables are presented in Table 1. The Mplus full information maximum likelihood algorithm dealt with missing data. The data met assumptions of normality with regard to skewness and kurtosis. As no correlation exceeded .70, the assumption of multi-collinearity was not violated. Independent samples t tests of gender differences revealed that nonsignificant differences between women and men on major study variables emerged, except for attachment avoidance, t(583) = -3.72, p < .001, and SWLS, t(583) = -2.24, p < .05.

Mediation Analyses

We next built a multiple mediation model based on the empirical evidence described above and the descriptive statistics analysis results (see Figure 1) to further examine whether or not, and how, EI and self-esteem moderated the impact of adult attachment orientations on SWB. This model provided a good fit to the data, χ² = 270.488, df = 80, χ²/df = 3.381, p < .001, root mean square error of approximation = .064, comparative fit index = .947, Tucker-Lewis index = .930, standardized root mean square residual = .051 (Wen, Hau, & Marsh, 2004).

About 52.1% of the variance in SWB was explained by attachment orientation, EI, and self-esteem in the mediation model. As shown in Table 2 and Figure 1, the bootstrap method revealed that both EI and self-esteem partially mediated the association between each attachment orientation and SWB, and the significant mediating roles were: (a) the mediating role of EI for attachment anxiety, effect size = .16, and for attachment avoidance, effect size = .26, and the mediating role of self-esteem for attachment anxiety, effect size = .16, and for attachment avoidance, effect size = .10; (b) the serial mediating role of EI via self-esteem for attachment anxiety, effect size = .05, and for attachment avoidance, effect size = .14); (c) sum of indirect effects via EI; and (d) sum of indirect effects via self-esteem.

Discussion

In this study, we examined the mediating roles of EI and self-esteem in the association between adult attachment orientations and SWB. Results of the serial mediation model supported the theoretical model and we identified that adult attachment orientations were negatively associated with SWB through the multiple mediating roles of EI and self-esteem.

Attachment theory is one of the most important conceptual frameworks for understanding the process of affect regulation (Mikulincer et al., 2003). According to Mikulincer and Shaver (2007), attachment anxiety and avoidance are both characterized by the failure of proximity seeking to relieve distress, and the consequent adoption of secondary attachment strategies. Attachment-anxious individuals have a fear of rejection, and tend to intensify negative emotional states and exaggerate the threatening aspects of an event, whereas attachment- avoidant individuals have compulsive self-reliance tendencies, and preference for emotional distance from others.

In this study, EI played a mediating role in the association between adult attachment orientations and SWB. This finding was consistent with that of previous researchers (e.g., Lanciano, Curci, Kafetsios, Elia, & Zammuner, 2012), and further revealed that the mediation effect size for attachment avoidance was higher than that for attachment anxiety. The different mediation effect size may reflect that attachment avoidance is a more negative and emotionally defensive mechanism than is attachment anxiety. Consequently, these different attachment strategies may influence individuals’ levels of EI, and ultimately reflect the different mechanisms underlying the happiness of attachment-anxious and attachment-avoidant individuals.

According to attachment theory, social interactions with attachment figures are internalized in an internal working model (Bowlby, 1969/1982). This model constitutes affective and cognitive representations of self, others, and relationships, which affect individuals’ close relationships and emotion regulation throughout their lifespan. In line with previous research (e.g., Wu, 2009), in this study, self-esteem played a mediating role in the association between adult attachment orientations and SWB. In addition, Kong, Zhao, and You (2012) found that the level of EI had significant influence on well-being through the mediating role of self-esteem. This finding was confirmed in this study, which further indicated the serial mediating role of EI via self-esteem for the impact of each attachment orientation (anxiety and avoidance) on SWB.

Conclusion

In short, by treating EI and self-esteem as multiple mediators in the relationship between adult attachment orientations and SWB, we have brought a new perspective to the discussion. Valuable guidance on how to implement psychological interventions aimed at enhancing attachment-anxious or attachment-avoidant individuals’ SWB, is provided in this study through the mediation model. Specifically, helping attachment insecure individuals elevate their emotion regulation and self-esteem abilities may provide a path to enhance their mental health status and happiness.

However, to our knowledge, this is the first study in which the above possible mediators have been explored, and there are several limitations in the study. The data were collected using self-report measures and may be susceptible to several biases (e.g., social desirability and interpretive biases). As the participants were all college students, these findings may not be generalizable to other populations. We used a cross-sectional design, so it is difficult to make cause-effect inferences. Future researchers could verify these findings in diverse participant groups, and conduct longitudinal studies to further explore the mechanism underlying adult attachment orientations and SWB.

References

Abubakar, A., Alonso-Arbiol, I., Van de Vijver, F. J. R., Murugami, M., Mazrui, L., & Arasa, J. (2013). Attachment and psychological well-being among adolescents with and without disabilities in Kenya: The mediating role of identity formation. Journal of Adolescence, 36, 849-857. http://doi.org/tgx

Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Bartholomew, K., & Shaver, P. R. (1998). Methods of assessing adult attachment: Do they converge? In J. A. Simpson & W. S. Rholes (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 25-45). New York: Guilford Press.

Bowlby, J. (1969-1982). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books

Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol. 2. Separation: Anxiety and anger. New York: Basic Books.

Bowlby, J. (1979). The making and breaking of affectional bonds. London, UK: Tavistock.

Brennan, K. A., Clark, C. L., & Shaver, P. R. (1998). Self-report measurement of adult romantic attachment: An integrative overview. In J. A. Simpson & W. S. Rholes (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 46-76). New York: Guilford Press.

Diener, E. (1994). Assessing subjective well-being: Progress and opportunities. Social Indicators Research, 31, 103-157. http://doi.org/cnd4xt

Diener, E., & Diener, M. (1995). Cross-cultural correlates of life satisfaction and self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 653-663. http://doi.org/dn9dsg

Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71-75. http://doi.org/fqqbmr

Dou, K., Nie, Y., Wang, Y., Liu, Y., & Li, J. (2013). Adolescents’ regulatory emotional self-efficacy and subjective well-being: The mediating effect of regulatory emotional style [In Chinese]. Journal of Psychological Science, 36, 139-144.

Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 511-524. http://doi.org/gnn

Kim, Y. (2005). Emotional and cognitive consequences of adult attachment: The mediating effect of the self. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 913-923. http://doi.org/b9t5vr

Kong, F., Zhao, J., & You, X. (2012). Emotional intelligence and life satisfaction in Chinese university students: The mediating role of self-esteem and social support. Personality and Individual Differences, 53, 1039-1043. http://doi.org/tgz

Kuppens, P., Ceulemans, E., Timmerman, M. E., Diener, E., & Kim-Prieto, C. (2006). Universal intracultural and intercultural dimensions of the recalled frequency of emotional experience. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 37, 491-515. http://doi.org/cbz8kb

Lanciano, T., Curci, A., Kafetsios, K., Elia, L., & Zammuner, V. L. (2012). Attachment and dysfunctional rumination: The mediating role of Emotional Intelligence abilities. Personality and Individual Differences, 53, 753-758. http://doi.org/tg2

Lavy, S., & Littman-Ovadia, H. (2011). All you need is love? Strengths mediate the negative associations between attachment orientations and life satisfaction. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 1050-1055. http://doi.org/bhc55z

Li, T., & Kato, K. (2006). Measuring adult attachment: Chinese adaptation of the ECR Scale [In Chinese]. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 38, 399-406.

Matsunaga, M. (2008). Item parceling in structural equation modeling: A primer. Communication Methods and Measures, 2, 260-293. http://doi.org/db7gqv

Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2007). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change. New York: Guilford Press.

Mikulincer, M., Shaver, P. R., & Pereg, D. (2003). Attachment theory and affect regulation: The dynamics, development, and cognitive consequences of attachment-related strategies. Motivation and Emotion, 27, 77-102. http://doi.org/gns

Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998-2012). Mplus user’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Authors.

Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1989-1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9, 185-211. http://doi.org/d7s8wh

Schutte, N. S., & Malouff, J. M. (2011). Emotional intelligence mediates the relationship between mindfulness and subjective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 1116-1119. http://doi.org/c2ts8j

Schutte, N. S., Malouff, J. M., Hall, L. E., Haggerty, D. J., Cooper, J. T., Golden, C. J., & Dornheim, L. (1998). Development and validation of a measure of emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 25, 167-177. http://doi.org/fmng7j

Shaver, P. R., & Mikulincer, M. (2007). Adult attachment strategies and the regulation of emotion. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 446-465). New York: Guilford Press.

Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7, 422-445. http://doi.org/cmqqb5

Wang, X. D., Wang, X. L., & Ma, H. (1999). Rating scales for mental health [In Chinese]. Beijing, China: Chinese Mental Health Press.

Wen, Z., Hau, K.-T., & Marsh, H. W. (2004). Structural equation model testing: Cutoff criteria for goodness of fit indices and chi-square test [In Chinese]. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 36, 186-194.

Wu, C.-H. (2009). The relationship between attachment style and self-concept clarity: The mediation effect of self-esteem. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 42-46. http://doi.org/bc4b7f

Yan, B., & Zheng, X. (2006). Research into relations among social-support, self-esteem and subjective well-being of college students [In Chinese]. Psychological Development and Education, 3, 60-64.

Zheng, X., Gu, H., & Zhu, P. (2009). A study of the Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS) by the Multivariate Generalizability Theory [In Chinese]. Psychological Science, 32, 181-183.

Abubakar, A., Alonso-Arbiol, I., Van de Vijver, F. J. R., Murugami, M., Mazrui, L., & Arasa, J. (2013). Attachment and psychological well-being among adolescents with and without disabilities in Kenya: The mediating role of identity formation. Journal of Adolescence, 36, 849-857. http://doi.org/tgx

Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Bartholomew, K., & Shaver, P. R. (1998). Methods of assessing adult attachment: Do they converge? In J. A. Simpson & W. S. Rholes (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 25-45). New York: Guilford Press.

Bowlby, J. (1969-1982). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books

Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol. 2. Separation: Anxiety and anger. New York: Basic Books.

Bowlby, J. (1979). The making and breaking of affectional bonds. London, UK: Tavistock.

Brennan, K. A., Clark, C. L., & Shaver, P. R. (1998). Self-report measurement of adult romantic attachment: An integrative overview. In J. A. Simpson & W. S. Rholes (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 46-76). New York: Guilford Press.

Diener, E. (1994). Assessing subjective well-being: Progress and opportunities. Social Indicators Research, 31, 103-157. http://doi.org/cnd4xt

Diener, E., & Diener, M. (1995). Cross-cultural correlates of life satisfaction and self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 653-663. http://doi.org/dn9dsg

Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71-75. http://doi.org/fqqbmr

Dou, K., Nie, Y., Wang, Y., Liu, Y., & Li, J. (2013). Adolescents’ regulatory emotional self-efficacy and subjective well-being: The mediating effect of regulatory emotional style [In Chinese]. Journal of Psychological Science, 36, 139-144.

Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 511-524. http://doi.org/gnn

Kim, Y. (2005). Emotional and cognitive consequences of adult attachment: The mediating effect of the self. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 913-923. http://doi.org/b9t5vr

Kong, F., Zhao, J., & You, X. (2012). Emotional intelligence and life satisfaction in Chinese university students: The mediating role of self-esteem and social support. Personality and Individual Differences, 53, 1039-1043. http://doi.org/tgz

Kuppens, P., Ceulemans, E., Timmerman, M. E., Diener, E., & Kim-Prieto, C. (2006). Universal intracultural and intercultural dimensions of the recalled frequency of emotional experience. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 37, 491-515. http://doi.org/cbz8kb

Lanciano, T., Curci, A., Kafetsios, K., Elia, L., & Zammuner, V. L. (2012). Attachment and dysfunctional rumination: The mediating role of Emotional Intelligence abilities. Personality and Individual Differences, 53, 753-758. http://doi.org/tg2

Lavy, S., & Littman-Ovadia, H. (2011). All you need is love? Strengths mediate the negative associations between attachment orientations and life satisfaction. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 1050-1055. http://doi.org/bhc55z

Li, T., & Kato, K. (2006). Measuring adult attachment: Chinese adaptation of the ECR Scale [In Chinese]. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 38, 399-406.

Matsunaga, M. (2008). Item parceling in structural equation modeling: A primer. Communication Methods and Measures, 2, 260-293. http://doi.org/db7gqv

Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2007). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change. New York: Guilford Press.

Mikulincer, M., Shaver, P. R., & Pereg, D. (2003). Attachment theory and affect regulation: The dynamics, development, and cognitive consequences of attachment-related strategies. Motivation and Emotion, 27, 77-102. http://doi.org/gns

Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998-2012). Mplus user’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Authors.

Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1989-1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9, 185-211. http://doi.org/d7s8wh

Schutte, N. S., & Malouff, J. M. (2011). Emotional intelligence mediates the relationship between mindfulness and subjective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 1116-1119. http://doi.org/c2ts8j

Schutte, N. S., Malouff, J. M., Hall, L. E., Haggerty, D. J., Cooper, J. T., Golden, C. J., & Dornheim, L. (1998). Development and validation of a measure of emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 25, 167-177. http://doi.org/fmng7j

Shaver, P. R., & Mikulincer, M. (2007). Adult attachment strategies and the regulation of emotion. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 446-465). New York: Guilford Press.

Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7, 422-445. http://doi.org/cmqqb5

Wang, X. D., Wang, X. L., & Ma, H. (1999). Rating scales for mental health [In Chinese]. Beijing, China: Chinese Mental Health Press.

Wen, Z., Hau, K.-T., & Marsh, H. W. (2004). Structural equation model testing: Cutoff criteria for goodness of fit indices and chi-square test [In Chinese]. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 36, 186-194.

Wu, C.-H. (2009). The relationship between attachment style and self-concept clarity: The mediation effect of self-esteem. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 42-46. http://doi.org/bc4b7f

Yan, B., & Zheng, X. (2006). Research into relations among social-support, self-esteem and subjective well-being of college students [In Chinese]. Psychological Development and Education, 3, 60-64.

Zheng, X., Gu, H., & Zhu, P. (2009). A study of the Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS) by the Multivariate Generalizability Theory [In Chinese]. Psychological Science, 32, 181-183.

The authors thank Shimin Chen

Hao Wu

and Tonggui Li for their assistance and support.

Xue Zheng, School of Psychology, South China Normal University, 55 Zhongshan Road West, Tianhe District, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510631, People’s Republic of China. Email: [email protected]