Previous researchers (Larson, 2000; Smith, 2003) have emphasized the importance of sport participation for individuals’ self-esteem. For example, some researchers argued that sport promotes positive adjustment by offering opportunities to learn, for example, athletic skills, peer relationships, and nonacademic competency (Larson, 2000; Smith, 2003). While the majority of researchers have focused on adolescents and children, there is a dearth of research on college students. Additionally, researchers (Daniels & Leaper, 2006; Slutzky & Simpkins, 2009) have investigated a variety of variables proposed to mediate the relationship between sport participation and individuals’ self-esteem, including sport self-concept and perceived peer acceptance. Therefore, in this study we proposed a model that incorporates the mediating effect of sport self-concept and perceived peer acceptance on the relationship between sport participation and individuals’ self-esteem among Taiwanese college students.

In the Exercise and Self-esteem Model (EXSEM) it is proposed that individuals’ physical self-concept is a key mechanism through which the time individuals spend on sport is related to their self-esteem (Sonstroem, Harlow, & Josephs, 1994). Moreover, individuals’ perceived sport ability is a key sport self-concept and is viewed as a critical correlate of individuals’ self-esteem (Slutzky & Simpkins, 2009; Sonstroem, 1998). As a result, we formulated the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1: Sport participation will have a positive relationship with sport self-concept.
Hypothesis 2: Sport self-concept will have a positive relationship with self-esteem.

Past researchers have indicated that sport participation makes a positive contribution to individuals’ peer acceptance (Jaffee & Ricker, 1993). Furthermore, Daniels and Leaper (2006) revealed that peer acceptance had a mediating effect between sport participation and self-esteem. Therefore, we formulated the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 3: Sport participation will have a positive relationship with peer acceptance.
Hypothesis 4: Peer acceptance will have a positive relationship with self-esteem.

Method

Participants

A total of 500 survey questionnaires were distributed to four universities in Taiwan (two located in the north and two in the south), with a two-stage sampling design utilized to ensure the representativeness of the sample. A total of 479 valid survey questionnaires were returned for a valid response rate of 95.8%. The ages of the participants ranged from 18 to 27 years (M = 20.51, SD = 1.50). In addition, 241 participants were male (50.3%) while 238 were female (49.7%).

Procedure

A pilot study comprising 97 valid surveys (out of 100 distributed) was performed using students from two universities in Taiwan (one in the north and one in the south) before the current study was conducted. Students were selected from physical education classes and were informed of the objective of this study. Additionally, students were asked to answer questions based on their perceptions and complete all the questions.

Measures

Sport participation was measured using two items modified from the work of Daniels and Leaper (2006) as well as that of Slutzky and Simpkins (2009). The first item was “During the past week, how many times did you play an active sport, such as baseball, softball, basketball, soccer, or swimming?” Response options ranged from 1 = not at all to 5 = five or more times. Participants who reported no sport participation were eliminated from the analysis. Thus, only participants who indicated that they participated in an active sport at least once a week were retained in the study. Another item was “How much time did you spend in an active sport in terms of hours per week?” Responses ranged from 1 = less than one hour per week to 5 = more than 20 hours per week.

Perceived peer acceptance was measured utilizing the following items adopted from Daniels and Leaper (2006): “I feel socially accepted”, “I feel close to people at this school”, “I feel like I am part of this school”, and “I am happy to be at this school”. A 5-point Likert scale was employed ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree.

Measures regarding sport self-concept were adopted from Slutzky and Simpkins (2009) and included: “How good at sport are you (1 = not good at all, 5 = very good)?” “If you were to list all the students in your class from the best to the worst at playing sport, where would you put yourself (1 = one of the worst, 5 = one of the best)?” “Compared to other activities, how good are you at sports (1 = not as good as other activities, 5 = a lot better than other activities)?” and “How good would you be at learning something new in sports (1 = not at all good, 5 = very good)?”

Four indicators from Daniels and Leaper (2006) were used to measure self-esteem: “I have a lot of good qualities”, “I have a lot to be proud of”, “I like myself just like the way I am”, and “I feel like I am doing everything just right”. A 5-point Likert scale was used ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree.

Data Analysis

The efficacy of the proposed model was analyzed using SPSS version 14.0 and LISREL version 8.51. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed on the measurement model in order to examine the relationships between the 14 variables and four latent constructs under study. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted to test the structural model.

Results

Pilot Study

The validity and reliability of the instrument in the pilot study was examined using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and Cronbach’s alpha. Variance extracted for each construct ranged from 63.28% to 83.56% with factor loadings ranging from .57 to .91. Moreover, Cronbach’s alpha values ranged from .78 to .80. Therefore, satisfactory results regarding validity and reliability were revealed.

Measurement Model

The overall fit of the measurement model was acceptable. The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) value (.074) was lower than the suggested threshold of .08 (Hu & Bentler, 1999). However, normed fit index (NFI), nonnormed fit index (NNFI), comparative fit index (CFI), goodness of fit index (GFI), and incremental fit index (IFI) were .92, .93, .94, .93, and .94, respectively; all greater than the suggested threshold of .90 (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2006).

Convergent and discriminant validity should be achieved in order to fulfill construct validity (Hair et al., 2006). Standardized loading estimates ranged from .59 to .91, indicating satisfactory convergent validity. The variance extracted for each construct ranged from .51 to .66, which was greater than the squared value of the correlation between two factors (ranging from .07 to .48), implying satisfactory discriminant validity. Furthermore, Cronbach’s alpha values for the constructs being studied ranged from .70 to .80, demonstrating reasonable construct reliability. Overall, the measurement model was valid and reliable.

Overall Model Fit

The model fit of the structural model was acceptable. The RMSEA (.073) was lower than the suggested threshold of .08. However, the NFI, NNFI, CFI, GFI, and IFI were .92, .93, .94, .93, and .94, respectively, all greater than the suggested threshold of .90.

Testing of the Hypotheses

The results demonstrated that sport participation (SP) positively predicted perceived peer acceptance (PPA) and sport self-concept (SSC). Additionally, self-esteem (SE) was positively explained by PPA and SSC. The structural equation modeling produced the following path coefficients: β_PPA→SE = .62, t = 11.04, p < .001; β_SSC→SE = .30, t = 7.04, p < .001; γ_SP→PPA = .28, t = 4.54, p < .001; and γ_SP→SSC = .46, t = 7.50, p < .001, where β_PPA→SE represents the path coefficient between PPA and SE, β_SSC→SE stands for the path coefficient between SSC and SE, γ_SP→PPA refers to the path coefficient between SP and PPA, and g_SP→SSC indicates the path coefficient between SP and SSC. The data analysis supported Hypotheses 1 through 4, indicating that the relationship between sport participation and self-esteem was mediated by sport self-concept and perceived peer acceptance.

Discussion

In this study we investigated the mediating effects of sport self-concept and perceived peer acceptance on self-esteem among Taiwanese college students in a single model. As predicted, sport self-concept mediated the relationship between sport participation and self-esteem. This finding is consistent with results gained in previous research (Pedersen & Seidman, 2004; Slutzky & Simpkins, 2009). In addition, peer acceptance mediated the relationship between sport participation and self-esteem, which was also in line with the findings of previous researchers (Daniels & Leaper, 2006).

In this study we incorporated sport self-concept and peer acceptance as mediators for the relationship between sport participation and self-esteem among Taiwanese college students in a single model. The results were satisfactory and had several implications. Convenience sampling was used rather than random sampling, which was the main limitation of the study. However, it was found that among college students, more sport participation leads to greater self-esteem via peer acceptance and/or sport self-concept. Universities should encourage students to engage in more sport participation, which in turn will result in greater self-esteem. This study makes contributions to the field of sport participation and the well-being of college students.

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Chen-Yueh Chen, Department of Athletic Sports, National Chung Cheng University, 168 University Rd., Min-Hsiung, Chia-Yi County 621, Taiwan, ROC. Email: [email protected]