The subject of this article is the concept of positive orientation, defined as a general disposition to react to life experiences in a positive way (Caprara et al., 2011). According to Caprara et al. (2009), this positive tendency is probably rooted in a biological system. In statistical analyses using structural equations, positive orientation is recognized as a latent variable explaining covariance in self-esteem (Self-Esteem Scale; Rosenberg, 1965), life satisfaction (Satisfaction With Life Scale; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985), and optimism (Life Orientation Test; Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994; see also Alessandri, Caprara, & Tisak, 2012). Following measurement using these three scales, factor analysis is used to calculate a factor score that is a measure of positive orientation. Caprara et al. (2012) developed the Positivity Scale as a short method to measure positive orientation, with eight items and a Cronbach’s alpha of .75.

Many researchers before Caprara have focused on the similarities among the variables that describe the positive characteristics of personality. Andrews and Withey (1976) first drew attention to the shared variance between self-reported measures of positive constructs. One of the best known constructs relating to the common variance in positive personality characteristics is homeostatically protected mood (HPMood; Cummins, 2010). According to HPMood, every person is equipped with cognitive buffers that enable him or her to reinterpret reality to maintain constant well-being. Among these cognitive buffers, self-esteem and optimism are particularly important. When people lose contact with the HPMood experience under the influence of negative circumstances, negative emotions can evolve into depression. Comparing the concepts of positive orientation and HPMood, the latter relates primarily to the process of maintaining equilibrium in well-being. In the positive orientation approach the focus is on the existence of a latent variable that stands for an instinct for life, encouraging life despite adversity. As a consequence, it can be said that positive orientation explains the source of well-being, whereas HPMood explains the working processes of the mental sense of control.

Positive orientation can also be compared with the mental health model of Taylor and Brown (1988). These authors paid particular attention to the beliefs about self-esteem, control, and optimism that are maintained at a positive level in the population. According to Taylor and Brown (1998), people have unrealistic beliefs about themselves that protect their mental health. In the approaches of both positive orientation and the mental health model the importance of the same interrelated variables are emphasized, namely, optimism and self-esteem. Taylor and Brown (1988) believe that joy of life comes with the ability of self-deception, whereas Caprara et al. (2011) are of the opinion that joy of life is a natural and innate inclination. People with a high level of positive orientation are convinced of the validity of their own positive values as well as the fact that life is good, and they believe that the future will be comfortable. Taylor and Brown (1988) argue that people are happy when they can deceive themselves that they are valuable and that the future is positive. If the two approaches are combined, it could be suggested that positive orientation is simply a natural tendency to believe in illusions about life.

As variables of a similar nature to positive orientation (see Sobol-Kwapinska, 2014), it is also worth paying attention to, for example, the general factor of personality (Rushton, Bons, & Hur, 2008), Czapiński’s (1994) onion theory of happiness, an inborn predisposition to, and potential for, happiness as presented by Sheldon and Lyubomirsky (2006), or vitality according to Ryan and Frederick (1997).

Alessandri et al. (2012) emphasize that other variables, apart from self-esteem, life satisfaction, and optimism, may constitute positive orientation.

Chalubinksa-Gonerko (2011) and Miciuk (2013) conducted a survey among students and developed the positive orientation model. In addition to self-esteem, life satisfaction, and optimism, the model included a sense of meaning in life. Perhaps the evaluation of the meaning in life is not necessarily based on a system of values but may be neurobiologically and genetically conditioned. The results reported by Chalubinksa-Gonerko and Miciuk will be more relevant if the sense of meaning in life is interpreted as a feeling that life has meaning, even if the individual does not know exactly what this meaning is (see Frankl, 1971).

It is also worth referring to the discussion of the differences between a happy life and a meaningful life, and to the question of whether or not an individual can live a happy life without meaning or a meaningful but unhappy life (see Baumeister, Vohs, Aaker, & Garbinsky, 2013). Answers to these questions will depend on the definitions of happiness and a meaningful life, that is, on whether happiness will be understood as subjective or as mental well-being. In other words, is positive orientation more strongly connected with a hedonic or with an eudaimonic understanding of happiness? According to Diener (1984), subjective well-being (SWB) reflects an individual’s evaluation of his or her own life in both cognitive and emotional terms. The main elements of SWB are satisfaction with life, the frequency of positive emotions, and the infrequency of negative emotions (Diener et al., 2010). According to Waterman (2011), self-realization is the core of eudaimonia. Variables strongly connected with this core are authenticity, meaning in life, and the pursuit of excellence. Ryff and Singer (2008) believe that eudaimonia means full functioning and being successful in confrontations with the existential challenges of life. Based on a review of the literature, Ryff (1989) distinguished the six elements of eudaimonia as self-acceptance, positive interpersonal relationships, personal development, purpose in life, control over one’s environment, and autonomy. When summing up the above concepts, Huta and Waterman (2014) note that the most common elements included in the definitions of eudaimonia are development, authenticity, relevance, and excellence, whereas the core of hedonia comprises life satisfaction, positive affect, and weak negative affect. Following this distinction, the conclusion is that positive orientation is the core of eudaimonia. Variables strongly connected with the core—that is, with positive orientation—include life satisfaction, self-esteem, optimism, and, as shown in the results of the studies by Chalubinksa-Gonerko (2011) and Miciuk (2013), a sense of meaning in life. A sense of self-efficacy, positive interpersonal relationships, or health-oriented attitudes are additional correlates of eudaimonia in this approach.

The concept of positive orientation is interesting in that it draws attention to the importance of the trend towards a positive perception of life. There could be some reservations about this new understanding of the otherwise known variable in that the concept of positive orientation may be weak by virtue of the fact that only factor analyses were used to extract this variable. It would be useful to apply some other statistical analyses to test the hypothesis that self-esteem, optimism, and life satisfaction have the same source, causes, and consequences. Additionally, some researchers have suggested that these three positive variables are qualitatively distinct constructs. For example, in the study by Voytsel (2012) the findings showed that after 10 training sessions during which participants learned how to influence their own brainwaves, the level of their optimism increased. Their life satisfaction also increased, although to a lesser extent. Thus, these results can be interpreted as attesting that neurofeedback training has different effects on each of these three variables, which, therefore, can be assumed to be qualitatively different.

The results of other studies have also suggested that optimism and self-esteem are two separate variables. For example, Scheier et al. (1994) proved that the relationship between optimism and depression was statistically significant, while the effect of self-esteem was statistically controlled. Similarly, Symister and Friend (2003) showed that social support influenced optimism through self-esteem. Such findings emphasize the importance of differentiation between self-esteem, optimism, and satisfaction with life, in order to gain a better understanding of the complexity of mental processes.

The next question to answer is whether or not positive orientation is the same as optimal orientation. In other words, is it true that the more positive the orientation, the more optimal it becomes? In order to provide an answer to this question, researchers may refer to studies on the dysfunctionality of excessive optimism or inappropriately high self-esteem (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs, 2003; Crocker & Park, 2004).

In summary, the value of the concept of positive orientation lies in its focus on the general tendency to perceive life in a positive way. My choice of the variables that constitute positive orientation may raise objections among other researchers, but may also encourage reflection and discussion, which are always beneficial for gaining greater understanding through scientific research.

References

Alessandri, G., Caprara, G. V., & Tisak, J. (2012). A unified latent curve, latent state-trait analysis of the developmental trajectories and correlates of positive orientation. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 47, 341–368. http://doi.org/bcvp

Andrews, F. M., & Withey, S. B. (1976). Social indicators of well-being: Americans’ perceptions of life quality. New York, NY: Plenum Press.

Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., & Vohs, K. D. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyle? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 1–44. http://doi.org/bzdjwj

Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., Aaker, J. L., & Garbinsky, E. N. (2013). Some key differences between a happy life and a meaningful life. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 8, 505–516. http://doi.org/bcvq

Caprara, G. V., Alessandri, G., Eisenberg, N., Kupfer, A., Steca, P., Caprara, M. G., … Abela, J. R. (2012). The Positivity Scale. Psychological Assessment, 24, 701–712. http://doi.org/fx4cwp

Caprara, G. V., Alessandri, G., Trommsdorff, G., Heikamp, T., Yamaguchi, S., & Suzuki, F. (2011). Positive orientation across three cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 43, 77–83. http://doi.org/bjb6g3

Caprara, G. V., Fagnani, C., Alessandri, G., Steca, P., Gigantesco, A., Sforza, L. L. C., & Stazi, M. A. (2009). Human optimal functioning: The genetics of positive orientation towards self, life, and the future. Behaviour Genetics, 39, 277–284. http://doi.org/bqkh9q

Chalubinska-Gonerko, A. (2011). Orientacja pozytywna a sens życia [Positive orientation and the meaning of life] (Unpublished master’s thesis). Lublin, Poland: Catholic University of Lublin.

Crocker, J., & Park, L. E. (2004). The costly pursuit of self-esteem. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 392–414. http://doi.org/ctsr3f

Cummins, R. A. (2010). Subjective well-being, homeostatically protected mood and depression: A synthesis. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11, 1–17. http://doi.org/dd569v

Czapiński, J. (1994). Psychologia szczęścia [The psychology of happiness]. Warsaw, Poland: PTP.

Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 542–575. http://doi.org/bw5wxd

Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale.
Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75. http://doi.org/fqqbmr

Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi, D., Oishi, S., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2010). New well-being measures: Short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings. Social Indicators Research, 97, 143–156. http://doi.org/dd87vp

Frankl, V. (1971). Homo patiens. Warsaw, Poland: PAX.

Huta, V., & Waterman, A. S. (2014). Eudaimonia and its distinction from hedonia: Developing a classification and terminology for understanding conceptual and operational definitions. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15, 1425–1456. http://doi.org/bcvr

Miciuk, L. (2013). Positive orientation and the Big Five (Unpublished master’s thesis). Lublin, Poland: Catholic University of Lublin.

Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Rushton, J. P., Bons, T. A., & Hur, Y.-M. (2008). The genetics and evolution of a general factor of personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 1173–1185. http://doi.org/c9xqkz

Ryan, R. M., & Frederick, C. (1997). On energy, personality and health: Subjective vitality as a dynamic reflection of well-being. Journal of Personality, 65, 529–565. http://doi.org/fdc3fx

Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069–1081. http://doi.org/dvp4hb

Ryff, C. D., & Singer, B. H. (2008). Know thyself and become what you are: A eudaimonic approach to psychological well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9, 13–39. http://doi.org/b7jb72

Scheier, M. F., Carver, C. S., & Bridges, M. W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 1063–1078. http://doi.org/dbn6wd

Sheldon, K. M., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2006). Achieving sustainable gains in happiness: Change your actions, not your circumstances. Journal of Happiness Studies, 7, 55–86. http://doi.org/d6jgqq

Sobol-Kwapinska, M. (2014). Orientacja pozytywna—koncepcje teoretyczne i przegląd badań [Positive orientation—theoretical concepts and review of research]. Studia Psychologiczne, 52, 77–90.

Symister, P., & Friend, R. (2003). The influence of social support and problematic support on optimism and depression in chronic illness: A prospective study evaluating self-esteem as a mediator. Health Psychology, 22, 123–129. http://doi.org/bcvs

Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 193–210. http://doi.org/dw28qs

Voytsel, N. (2012). Positive orientation, sense of efficacy and neurofeedback training (Unpublished master’s thesis). Lublin, Poland: Catholic University of Lublin.

Waterman, A. S. (2011). Eudaimonic identity theory: Identity as self-discovery. In S. J. Schwartz, K. Luyckx, & V. L. Vignoles (Eds.), Handbook of identity theory and research (Vols. 1 & 2). New York, NY: Springer.

Alessandri, G., Caprara, G. V., & Tisak, J. (2012). A unified latent curve, latent state-trait analysis of the developmental trajectories and correlates of positive orientation. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 47, 341–368. http://doi.org/bcvp

Andrews, F. M., & Withey, S. B. (1976). Social indicators of well-being: Americans’ perceptions of life quality. New York, NY: Plenum Press.

Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., & Vohs, K. D. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyle? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 1–44. http://doi.org/bzdjwj

Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., Aaker, J. L., & Garbinsky, E. N. (2013). Some key differences between a happy life and a meaningful life. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 8, 505–516. http://doi.org/bcvq

Caprara, G. V., Alessandri, G., Eisenberg, N., Kupfer, A., Steca, P., Caprara, M. G., … Abela, J. R. (2012). The Positivity Scale. Psychological Assessment, 24, 701–712. http://doi.org/fx4cwp

Caprara, G. V., Alessandri, G., Trommsdorff, G., Heikamp, T., Yamaguchi, S., & Suzuki, F. (2011). Positive orientation across three cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 43, 77–83. http://doi.org/bjb6g3

Caprara, G. V., Fagnani, C., Alessandri, G., Steca, P., Gigantesco, A., Sforza, L. L. C., & Stazi, M. A. (2009). Human optimal functioning: The genetics of positive orientation towards self, life, and the future. Behaviour Genetics, 39, 277–284. http://doi.org/bqkh9q

Chalubinska-Gonerko, A. (2011). Orientacja pozytywna a sens życia [Positive orientation and the meaning of life] (Unpublished master’s thesis). Lublin, Poland: Catholic University of Lublin.

Crocker, J., & Park, L. E. (2004). The costly pursuit of self-esteem. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 392–414. http://doi.org/ctsr3f

Cummins, R. A. (2010). Subjective well-being, homeostatically protected mood and depression: A synthesis. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11, 1–17. http://doi.org/dd569v

Czapiński, J. (1994). Psychologia szczęścia [The psychology of happiness]. Warsaw, Poland: PTP.

Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 542–575. http://doi.org/bw5wxd

Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale.
Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75. http://doi.org/fqqbmr

Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi, D., Oishi, S., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2010). New well-being measures: Short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings. Social Indicators Research, 97, 143–156. http://doi.org/dd87vp

Frankl, V. (1971). Homo patiens. Warsaw, Poland: PAX.

Huta, V., & Waterman, A. S. (2014). Eudaimonia and its distinction from hedonia: Developing a classification and terminology for understanding conceptual and operational definitions. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15, 1425–1456. http://doi.org/bcvr

Miciuk, L. (2013). Positive orientation and the Big Five (Unpublished master’s thesis). Lublin, Poland: Catholic University of Lublin.

Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Rushton, J. P., Bons, T. A., & Hur, Y.-M. (2008). The genetics and evolution of a general factor of personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 1173–1185. http://doi.org/c9xqkz

Ryan, R. M., & Frederick, C. (1997). On energy, personality and health: Subjective vitality as a dynamic reflection of well-being. Journal of Personality, 65, 529–565. http://doi.org/fdc3fx

Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069–1081. http://doi.org/dvp4hb

Ryff, C. D., & Singer, B. H. (2008). Know thyself and become what you are: A eudaimonic approach to psychological well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9, 13–39. http://doi.org/b7jb72

Scheier, M. F., Carver, C. S., & Bridges, M. W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 1063–1078. http://doi.org/dbn6wd

Sheldon, K. M., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2006). Achieving sustainable gains in happiness: Change your actions, not your circumstances. Journal of Happiness Studies, 7, 55–86. http://doi.org/d6jgqq

Sobol-Kwapinska, M. (2014). Orientacja pozytywna—koncepcje teoretyczne i przegląd badań [Positive orientation—theoretical concepts and review of research]. Studia Psychologiczne, 52, 77–90.

Symister, P., & Friend, R. (2003). The influence of social support and problematic support on optimism and depression in chronic illness: A prospective study evaluating self-esteem as a mediator. Health Psychology, 22, 123–129. http://doi.org/bcvs

Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 193–210. http://doi.org/dw28qs

Voytsel, N. (2012). Positive orientation, sense of efficacy and neurofeedback training (Unpublished master’s thesis). Lublin, Poland: Catholic University of Lublin.

Waterman, A. S. (2011). Eudaimonic identity theory: Identity as self-discovery. In S. J. Schwartz, K. Luyckx, & V. L. Vignoles (Eds.), Handbook of identity theory and research (Vols. 1 & 2). New York, NY: Springer.

This research was partly supported by a grant from the National Science Center (Poland) entitled Positive orientation

Structure and functions (4282/B/H03/2011/40).

Malgorzata Sobol-Kwapinska, Department of Psychology, Catholic University of Lublin, Al. Raclawickie 14, 20-950 Lublin, Poland. Email: [email protected]