Much recent global research has been focused on optimism and the contribution of psychological features (e.g., laughter, desire, and life satisfaction) to health (see e.g., Diener & Seligman, 2002; Seligman, 2006). One of the most important concepts related to psychological health is subjective well-being (Diener & Chan, 1984), which can be divided into the dimensions of life satisfaction, abundance of positive emotions, and paucity of negative emotions (Diener, 1984; Myers & Diener, 1995). Life satisfaction is a cognitive aspect of subjective well-being and is defined as an individual’s overall evaluation of the quality of his or her life according to criteria the individual him/herself determines (Diener, Inglehart, & Tay, 2013; Diener, Oishi, & Lucas, 2003). Life satisfaction is related to the satisfaction derived from various aspects of a person’s life, including amusement, relaxation (Diener, Suh, & Oishi, 1997), love, family, and friendship (Suldo & Huebner, 2006). It is affected by many factors, including pleasure derived from daily life, the meaning attributed to life, life goals, a positive individual identity, and social relationships (Diener et al., 2003). Scholars have shown that life satisfaction is positively correlated with subjective well-being (Suldo & Huebner, 2004), positive interpersonal relationships (Froh et al., 2007), mood clarity (Extremera, Durán, & Rey, 2009), self-compassion (Neff & Germer, 2013; Smeets, Neff, Alberts, & Peters, 2014), and a democratic parental attitude (Deniz et al., 2013). Further, it is negatively correlated with anxiety, depression (Serin, Serin, & Özbaş, 2010), risky behaviors, and a feeling of hopelessness (Savi-Çakar, Tagay, & Karataş, 2015).

As life satisfaction is affected by many factors, it is important to study this concept alongside many others related to an individual’s nature. Subjective happiness is closely related to life satisfaction (Diener, 2000) and is defined as an individual’s subjective evaluation of his/her happiness or unhappiness (Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999). Previous researchers have indicated that subjective happiness has various positive effects on psychological health (Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005); however, there is no consensus as to how individuals become happy (Veenhoven, 1994), as happiness levels are affected by many contributing objective factors, such as life events (Lee & Im, 2007), income level (Takashi & Kobayashi, 2011), and emotions, thoughts, and behaviors (Layous, Nelson, & Lyubomirsky, 2012). Because happiness is subjective, some individuals feel happy with little things despite poor life conditions and hardships, whereas others in much better conditions may feel unhappy (Lyubomirsky, 2001; Myers & Diener, 1995). For this reason, researchers have begun to investigate the relationship between happiness and subjective factors. Happiness has been found to be negatively related to stress (Schiffrin & Nelson, 2010) and positively related to positive emotions, satisfying relationships (Diener & Seligman, 2002), self-esteem (Furnham & Cheng, 2000), forgiveness (Maltby, Day, & Barber, 2005), self-compassion (Akin & Akin, 2014), and quality of friendships (Akin & Akin, 2015).

One important concept that affects life satisfaction is forgiveness (Worthington, Berry, & Parrott, 2001), which is defined as the willingness to let go of negative feelings, such as anger and revenge, that an individual feels toward another person for an unjust hurt; instead, the individual tries to develop positive feelings, such as love, generosity, and mercy, toward the other person (Enright & Fitzgibbons, 2000). Forgiveness is based on an individual changing his or her motivation from revenge to compromise (McCullough, Pargament, & Thoresen, 2001); in other words, the individual tries to establish a sense of empathy, thereby making a conscious effort to increase his or her happiness (Macaskill, Maltby, & Day, 2002). Researchers of the concept of forgiveness have reported negative correlations with negative emotions (Ysseldyk, Matheson, & Anisman, 2007), neuroticism (Ballester, Muñoz-Sastre, & Mullet, 2009), anger, anxiety, and depression (Fayyaz & Besharat, 2011); conversely, forgiveness contributes positively to the development of coping skills (Maltby, Day, & Barber, 2004), the quality of interpersonal relationships (McCullough, Fincham, & Tsang, 2003), physical health (Lawler-Row, Karremans, Scott, Edlis-Matityahu, & Edwards, 2008), and psychological resilience (Eroğlu, Eldeleklioğlu, & Mendi, 2014).

In recent years, scholars have observed that rumination negatively affects life satisfaction (Ysseldyk et al., 2007). According to response style theory, rumination is defined as repeatedly thinking in a negative emotional manner and focusing on the causes and effects of events in a passive way. As individuals who experience rumination cannot find sufficient and effective solutions to their problems, they focus more on the negative aspects of events and remain in negative emotional states longer than do nonruminative individuals (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987, 2004); these individuals also live with the effects of negative events for a longer period of time than do nonruminative individuals (Nolen-Hoeksema, Wisco, & Lyubomirsky, 2008). Researchers have also indicated that ruminative individuals have insufficient problem-solving skills (Lyubomirsky, Tucker, Caldwell, & Berg, 1999) and problematic social relationships (Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1995). Further, rumination has been found to be positively correlated with negative automatic thoughts (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004), anxiety (Nolen-Hoeksema & Watkins, 2011), depression (Johnson, Whisman, Corley, Hewitt, & Friedman, 2014; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008), and lower levels of happiness (Elliott & Coker, 2008).

The Present Study

My principal aim in this study was to evaluate the predictive effects of subjective happiness, forgiveness, and rumination on life satisfaction in a Turkish population. Although there have been different findings across different cultures with regard to life satisfaction, forgiveness, and rumination, no such studies have yet been carried out with a Turkish population. For this reason, I expected to provide valuable data for international comparisons. My second aim in this study was to explain life satisfaction by taking into consideration the collective variables of subjective well-being, forgiveness, and rumination, which, to my knowledge, have not yet been investigated. For the purpose of this study, the following hypotheses were tested:
Hypothesis 1: Subjective happiness will positively predict the life satisfaction of Turkish university students.
Hypothesis 2: Forgiveness will positively predict the life satisfaction of Turkish university students.
Hypothesis 3: Rumination will negatively predict the life satisfaction of Turkish university students.

Method

Participants

Using convenience sampling, I recruited 380 students from different departments of Uludağ University. Of the participating students, 295 (78%) were women and 85 (22%) were men, and the mean age was 22.07 ± 2.12 years. Further, 36 (9%) students were in their first year of study, 50 (14%) in their second year, 76 (20%) in their third year, and 218 (57%) in their fourth year.

Measures

Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS). The SWLS was developed by Diener, Emmons, Larsen, and Griffin (1985) to measure an individual’s level of satisfaction derived from life. This scale is composed of five items covering one dimension that are rated on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree), with total scores ranging between 5 and 35. Diener et al. (1985) reported that the Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency varied between .80 and .89, and it was .86 in this study. Köker (1991) created the Turkish adaptation of this scale and found that the item–total correlations varied between .71 and .80, and that the test–retest reliability was .85.

Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS). The SHS was developed by Lyubomirsky and Lepper (1999) with the aim of measuring people’s level of global happiness. This scale is composed of four items covering one dimension that are rated on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree), with total scores ranging between 4 and 28. Lyubomirsky and Lepper (1999) reported that the Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency was.86 and in this study it was .70. Akın and Satıcı (2011) created the Turkish adaptation of this scale. The test–retest correlation coefficient was calculated to be .73 by Akın and Satıcı (2011).

Trait Forgiveness Scale (TFS). The TFS was developed by Berry, Worthington, O’Connor, Parrott, and Wade (2005) to measure an individual’s forgiveness trait. This scale is composed of 10 items covering one dimension that are rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). Total scores range between 10 and 50, with a higher score indicating a greater tendency to forgive. Akin, Akin, and Gediksiz (2012) created the Turkish adaptation of this scale and found that the Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency was .67, and that item–total correlation coefficients varied between .37 and .48. The test–retest correlation coefficient of this scale was found to be .88 (as cited in Uysal, Satıcı, Satıcı, & Akin, 2014). In this study, Cronbach’s alpha was .72.

Ruminative Thought Style Scale (RTSS). The RTSS was developed by Brinker and Dozois (2009) to measure an individual’s ruminative thought style, and is specific to pathological incidences in nonclinical cases. This scale is composed of 20 items rated on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = never to 7 = completely), with total scores ranging between 20 and 140. Karatepe, Yavuz, and Turkcan (2013) created the Turkish adaptation of this scale with a sample of nonclinical individuals, and found a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .90, and a test–retest correlation coefficient of .84. In this study, Cronbach’s alpha was .92.

Procedure and Data Analysis

The study was conducted over 3 weeks in the 2014 spring term, with all participants in one group. I distributed survey forms to the students and informed them about the aims and measures of the study in advance. Only volunteers participated, and all students answered the items in the survey in approximately 15 minutes. Data from 16 participants who submitted incomplete responses were not evaluated. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated and multiple regression analysis was applied to all variables. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 15.00.

Results

Descriptive Statistics and Intercorrelations

Results presented in Table 1 shows the means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations among life satisfaction, subjective happiness, forgiveness, and rumination scores. The correlational analysis revealed significant relationships among the research variables. According to the results of the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient analysis, life satisfaction was positively related to subjective happiness and forgiveness, and negatively related to rumination. As life satisfaction increased, subjective happiness and forgiveness increased, but rumination decreased. Moreover, subjective happiness was positively related to forgiveness and negatively related to rumination, whereas forgiveness was negatively related to rumination.

Multiple Regression Analysis

Prior to conducting the multiple regression analysis, I checked the conditions necessary to meet the regression analysis. Normality of the variables was examined via skewness and kurtosis coefficients, which should between the intervals of ± 2 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). As shown in Table 1, life satisfaction, subjective happiness, forgiveness, and rumination all had a normal distribution. Moreover, examination of the multivariate normality using LISREL version 9.1 revealed sufficient supporting evidence. Scattering graphs showed that the assumption of homoscedasticity was met. I used the Mahalanobis distance value measure to examine redundant data, comparing it to the c2 table value and taking the number of independent variables as the degrees of freedom. When the calculated value is smaller than the table value, the assumption of multivariate normality is met. Participants with Mahalanobis distance values above the χ² table values were determined to have provided extreme values and were not included in the analysis (Büyüköztürk, 2012). In this study, only one Mahalanobis distance value was below .01 and was, therefore, not included in the analysis. In order to determine multicollinearity, I examined the bivariate correlation coefficients among the independent variables and found that all were below .80. The variance inflation factors belonging to each of the three variables with values under 10 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007) indicated the absence of a multicollinearity problem.

I performed a multiple regression analysis in which the dependent variable was life satisfaction and the independent variables were subjective happiness, forgiveness, and rumination. Results are presented in Table 2 of the multiple regression analysis, indicating whether or not the variables of subjective happiness, forgiveness, and rumination could be used to predict satisfaction with life.

According to the multiple regression analysis, subjective happiness accounted for 17% of the variance in life satisfaction (R² = .169, Adj. R² = .166, F(1, 288) = 58.445, p < .001). Rumination, when entered at the second step, accounted for an additional 3% of the variance (R² = .194, Adj. R² = .189, ΔR² = .025, F(2, 287) = 34.577, p < .001). Forgiveness, when entered last, accounted for an additional 2% of the variance (R² = .213, Adj. R² = .205, ΔR² = .019, F(3, 286) = 25.866, p < .01). Overall, subjective happiness, ruminative thought style, and forgiveness explained 21.3% of the total variance in life satisfaction (R = .462, R² = .213, F(3, 286) = 25.866, p < .001). The t test results, which indicate the relative significance of the regression coefficients, showed that the variables of subjective happiness, rumination, and forgiveness in the last model all had a significant influence on life satisfaction, and that subjective happiness was the strongest predictor.

Discussion

In this study, I examined the predictive effects of subjective happiness, forgiveness, and rumination on life satisfaction among Turkish university students. Results showed that subjective happiness and forgiveness positively predict life satisfaction, whereas rumination negatively predicts life satisfaction. Subjective happiness was found to be the strongest predictor of life satisfaction when compared to forgiveness and rumination, which is in line with the findings of previous researchers (Diener, 2000; Lyubomirsky, 2001) who stated that, although some individuals become unhappy even under good life conditions, others might feel happy under poor life conditions, so life satisfaction is considered to be a subjective state specific to the individual. Diener (1984) also described life satisfaction as an individual’s evaluation of his/her life according to his/her own standards. As both variables are based on individuals’ self-evaluations, the finding that subjective happiness significantly predicts life satisfaction is consistent with these results. Uysal et al. (2014) examined relationships among life satisfaction, subjective happiness, and vitality of Turkish people, and also found a moderate relationship between life satisfaction and subjective happiness.

My results in this study also indicate that forgiveness and life satisfaction are positively related and that forgiveness significantly predicts life satisfaction; however, this relationship is weaker than I had expected. Worthington et al. (2001) reported finding a robust positive relationship between forgiveness and life satisfaction, but McCullough, Bellah, Kilpatrick, and Johnson (2001) found that this relationship was weak. The latter results may be explained by the nature of the life satisfaction construct, because this construct—as with self-esteem and loneliness—is strictly self-referential. Traits, such as anger or rumination, are specific to an individual but are not entirely self-referential because they are also related to the way an individual interacts with others (Muñoz-Sastre, Vinsonneau, Neto, Girard, & Mullet, 2003). In a study of two different European groups, Muñoz–Sastre et al. (2003) found a weak relationship between forgiveness and life satisfaction. These differing findings may be attributable to the use of different scales or may have resulted from cultural differences.

My finding that rumination negatively predicted life satisfaction aligns with the results of some previous studies (e.g., Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987). Treynor, Gonzalez, and Nolen-Hoeksema (2003) found a moderately strong relationship between rumination and depression, which resulted in lower life satisfaction across all three dimensions of rumination. Ysseldyk et al. (2007) found that there was a negative correlation between rumination and life satisfaction, and, by using regression analysis, that rumination negatively predicted life satisfaction. In a study of Asian- and European-Americans, Tsai (2010) found a significant relationship between rumination and life satisfaction and additionally found that Asian-Americans were more ruminative than were European-Americans.

In my study, the relationship between life satisfaction and subjective happiness was comparatively weaker than that in the abovementioned previous studies. This difference might have resulted from the scales I used; however, in order to interpret these results rigorously, additional studies evaluating the Turkish population are needed. In addition, subjective happiness, ruminative thought style, and forgiveness accounted for 21.3% of the total variance in life satisfaction. As this is a relatively small amount, future researchers are recommended to examine other variables that influence life satisfaction.

Some limitations to my study should be considered when interpreting these results. First, participants were university students and, therefore, the results may not be generalizable to all adults. Second, the population was nonclinical, so it may be worth repeating the analysis with a clinical sample. Third, the results obtained are limited to self-reported answers from the participants; thus, the data may have been biased because they were obtained from a single source. Last, since correlational statistics were employed, causality cannot be stated.

Conclusion

In summary, my results indicate that life satisfaction is positively correlated with subjective happiness and forgiveness but negatively correlated with a ruminative thought style. The results have important theoretical and empirical implications. First, these results are consistent with those obtained in past studies of life satisfaction, subjective happiness, and rumination (Diener, 1984, 2000; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987). Second, in Turkey, researchers have just begun to study these variables in nonclinical populations, but I do not know of any practice-oriented studies. For this reason, my results are important for psychological healthcare workers, who can include these variables into their supportive and preventive programs in order to assess important characteristics that contribute to good psychological health. Additional studies focused on the importance of forgiveness for good psychological health would also be beneficial for this group, as would the development of problem-solving skills in order to decrease rumination for the development and maintenance of good psychological health. Taken together, the life satisfaction predictors studied here could be used to help adolescents establish healthy relationships with their peers and within their social environment.

References

Akin, A., & Akin, U. (2014). An investigation of the predictive role of self-compassion on subjective happiness in Turkish university students. Education Sciences & Psychology, 32, 59–68.

Akin, A., & Akin, U. (2015). Friendship quality and subjective happiness: The mediator role of subjective vitality. Education and Science, 40, 233–242. http://doi.org/10/4hr

Akin, A., Akin, U., & Gediksiz, E. (2012). The Forgivingness Scale: The validity and reliability of the Turkish version [In Turkish]. Paper presented at the 1st Annual International Counseling and Education Conference, Istanbul, Turkey, May 3–5.

Akin, A., & Satici, S. A. (2011). Subjective Happiness Scale [In Turkish]. Sakarya University Journal of Education, 21, 65–77.

Ballester, S., Muñoz-Sastre, M. T., & Mullet, E. (2009). Forgivingness and lay conceptualizations of forgiveness. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 605–609. http://doi.org/fv3935

Berry, J. W., Worthington, E. L., Jr., O’Connor, L. E., Parrot, L., III, & Wade, N. G. (2005). Forgivingness, vengeful rumination, and affective traits. Journal of Personality, 73, 183–226. http://doi.org/cn5dzm

Brinker, J. K., & Dozois, D. J. A. (2009). Ruminative thought style and depressed mood. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65, 1–19. http://doi.org/ds66zk

Büyüköztürk, S. (2012). A handbook of data analysis (17th ed.) [In Turkish]. Ankara, Turkey: Pegem.

Deniz, M. E., Karakuş, Ö., Traş, Z., Eldeleklioğlu, J., Özyeşil, Z., & Hamarta, E. (2013). Parental attitude perceived by university students as predictors of subjective well-being and life satisfaction. Psychology, 4, 169–173. http://doi.org/34g

Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 542–575. http://doi.org/fgcwkb

Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55, 34–43. http://doi.org/cqx7nv

Diener, E., & Chan, M. Y. (1984). Happy people live longer: Subjective well-being contributes to health. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 3, 1–43. http://doi.org/ckbjqs

Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75. http://doi.org/fqqbmr

Diener, E., Inglehart, R., & Tay, L. (2013). Theory and validity of life satisfaction scales. Social Indicators Research, 112, 497–527. http://doi.org/nhf

Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2003). Personality, culture, and subjective well-being: Emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 403–425. http://doi.org/gts

Diener, E., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Very happy people. Psychological Science, 13, 81–84. http://doi.org/dbxs4f

Diener, E., Suh, E., & Oishi, S. (1997). Recent findings on subjective well-being. Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology, 24, 25–41.

Elliot, I., & Coker, S. (2008). Independent self-construal, self-reflection and self-rumination: A path model for predicting happiness. Australian Journal of Psychology, 60, 127–134. http://doi.org/dqtt42

Enright, R. D., & Fitzgibbons, R. P. (2000). Helping clients forgive: An empirical guide for resolving anger and restoring hope. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Eroğlu, Y., Eldeleklioğlu, J., & Mendi, E. (2014). Forgiveness and psychological resilience in adolescence. In K. Mortan, I. Hristov, O. Strelova, & Z. Kostova (Eds.), The science and education at the beginning of the 21st. century in Turkey (pp. 317–325). Sofia, Turkey: St. Kliment Ohridski University Press.

Extremera, N., Durán, A., & Rey, L. (2009). The moderating effect of trait meta-mood and perceived stress on life satisfaction. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 116–121. http://doi.org/cpnrsr

Fayyaz, F., & Besharat, M. A. (2011). Comparison of anger control in clinical depressed, non-clinical depressed and normal people. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 30, 94–97. http://doi.org/fz39t6

Froh, J. J., Fives, C. J., Fuller, J. R., Jacofsky, M. D., Terjesen, M. D., & Yurkewicz, C. (2007). Interpersonal relationships and irrationality as predictors of life satisfaction. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2, 29–39. http://doi.org/csn9zb

Furnham, A., & Cheng, H. (2000). Perceived parental behaviour, self-esteem and happiness. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 35, 463–470. http://doi.org/fnqc37

Johnson, D. P., Whisman, M. A., Corley, R. P., Hewitt, J. K., & Friedman, N. P. (2014). Genetic and environmental influences on rumination and its covariation with depression. Cognition & Emotion, 28, 1270–1286. http://doi.org/34j

Karatepe, H. T., Yavuz, F. K., & Turkcan, A. (2013). Validity and reliability of the Turkish version of the Ruminative Thought Style Questionnaire. Bulletin of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 23, 231–241. http://doi.org/34k

Köker, S. (1991). The comparison of life satisfaction levels in psychologically healthy and unhealthy adolescents [In Turkish]. Unpublished master’s thesis, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey.

Lawler-Row, K. A., Karremans, J. C., Scott, C., Edlis-Matityahu, M., & Edwards, L. (2008). Forgiveness, physiological reactivity and health: The role of anger. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 6, 51–58. http://doi.org/d3cctg

Layous K., Nelson, S. K., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2012). What is the optimal way to deliver a positive activity intervention? The case of writing about one’s best possible selves. Journal of Happiness Studies, 14, 635–654. http://doi.org/35w

Lee, J. Y., & Im, G. S. (2007). Self-enhancing bias in personality, subjective happiness, and perception of life events: A replication in a Korean aged sample. Aging and Mental Health, 11, 57–60. http://doi.org/fvrskd

Lyubomirsky, S. (2001). Why are some people happier than others? The role of cognitive and motivational processes in well-being. American Psychologist, 56, 239–249. http://doi.org/b883hz

Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803–855. http://doi.org/bcnt2d

Lyubomirsky, S., & Lepper, H. S. (1999). A measure of subjective happiness: Preliminary reliability and construct validation. Social Indicators Research, 46, 137–155. http://doi.org/bfpfhv

Lyubomirsky, S., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1995). Effects of self-focused rumination on negative thinking and interpersonal problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 176–190. http://doi.org/fgkc9s

Lyubomirsky, S., Tucker, K. L., Caldwell, N. D., & Berg, K. (1999). Why ruminators are poor problem solvers: Clues from the phenomenology of dysphoric rumination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1041–1060. http://doi.org/fp679x

Macaskill, A., Maltby J., & Day, L. (2002). Forgiveness of self and others, and emotional empathy. The Journal of Social Psychology, 142, 663–667. http://doi.org/c7w8fz

Maltby, J., Day, L., & Barber, L. (2004). Forgiveness and mental health variables: Interpreting the relationship using an adaptational-continuum model of personality and coping. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 1629–1641. http://doi.org/fkvh7m

Maltby, J., Day, L., & Barber, L. (2005). Forgiveness and happiness. The different contexts of forgiveness using the distinction between hedonic and eudaimonic happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, 6, 1–13. http://doi.org/dshszp

McCullough, M. E., Bellah, C. G., Kilpatrick, S. D., & Johnson, J. L. (2001). Vengefulness: Relationships with forgiveness, rumination, well-being, and the Big Five. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 601–610. http://doi.org/dz38f4

McCullough, M. E., Fincham, F. D., & Tsang, J. (2003). Forgiveness, forbearance, and time: The temporal unfolding of transgression-related interpersonal motivations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 540–557. http://doi.org/d2cdvm

McCullough, M. E., Pargament, K. I., & Thoresen, C. E. (2001). Forgiveness: Theory, research, and practice. New York: Guilford Press.

Muñoz-Sastre, T., Vinsonneau, G., Neto, F., Girard, M., & Mullet, E. (2003). Forgivingness and satisfaction with life. Journal of Happiness Studies, 4, 323–335. http://doi.org/drmk8k

Myers, D. G., & Diener, E. (1995). Who is happy? Psychological Science, 6, 10–19. http://doi.org/ffb7qx

Neff, K. D., & Germer, C. K. (2013). A pilot study and randomized controlled trial of the mindful self-compassion program. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69, 28–44. http://doi.org/m9v

Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1987). Sex differences in unipolar depression: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 259–282. http://doi.org/br5tf4

Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2004). Gender differences in risk factors and consequences for alcohol use and problems. Clinical Psychology Review, 24, 981–1010. http://doi.org/cvrhk5

Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Watkins, E. R. (2011). A heuristic for developing transdiagnostic models of psychopathology: Explaining multifinality and divergent trajectories. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 589–609. http://doi.org/dbb2cr

Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 400–424. http://doi.org/fbnqtj

Savi-Çakar, F., Tagay, Ö., & Karataş, Z. (2015). Adolescents’ life satisfaction: Risky behaviors and hopelessness. International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications, 6, 55–62.

Schiffrin, H. H., & Nelson, K. S. (2010). Stressed and happy? Investigating the relationship between happiness and perceived stress. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11, 33–39. http://doi.org/d78j5t

Seligman, M. E. (2006). Learned optimism: How to change your mind and your life. New York: Vintage.

Serin, N. B., Serin, O., & Özbaş, L. F. (2010). Predicting university students’ life satisfaction by their anxiety and depression level. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 9, 579–582. http://doi.org/bjxcgp

Smeets, E., Neff, K. D., Alberts, H., & Peters, M. (2014). Meeting suffering with kindness: Effects of a brief self-compassion intervention for female college students. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 70, 794–807. http://doi.org/35f

Suldo, S. M., & Huebner, E. S. (2004). Does life satisfaction moderate the effects of stressful life events on psychopathological behavior in adolescence? School Psychology Quarterly, 19, 93–105. http://doi.org/djzx28

Suldo, S. M., & Huebner, E. S. (2006). Is extremely high life satisfaction during adolescence advantageous? Social Indicators Research, 78, 179–203. http://doi.org/dwqb96

Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Experimental designs using ANOVA. Belmont, CA: Duxbury Press.

Takashi, O., & Kobayashi, M. (2011). Area-level income inequality and individual happiness: Evidence from Japan. Journal of Happiness Studies, 12, 633–649. http://doi.org/b9sb5t

Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 247–259. http://doi.org/dvn9n3

Tsai, W. (2010). Examining the relations between rumination and adjustment: A focus on ethnicity. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1HGLcgB

Uysal, R., Satıcı, S. A., Satıcı, B., & Akin, A. (2014). Subjective vitality as mediator and moderator of the relationship between life satisfaction and subjective happiness. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 14, 489–497. http://doi.org/35g

Veenhoven, R. (1994). Is happiness a trait? Social Indicators Research, 32, 101–160. http://doi.org/cxt44j

Worthington, E. L., Jr., Berry, J. W., & Parrott, L., III. (2001). Unforgiveness, forgiveness, religion, and health. In T. G. Plante & A. C. Sherman (Eds.), Faith and health: Psychological perspectives (pp. 107–138). New York: Guilford Press.

Ysseldyk, R., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2007). Rumination: Bridging a gap between forgivingness, vengefulness, and psychological health. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 1573–1584. http://doi.org/drb8w9

Akin, A., & Akin, U. (2014). An investigation of the predictive role of self-compassion on subjective happiness in Turkish university students. Education Sciences & Psychology, 32, 59–68.

Akin, A., & Akin, U. (2015). Friendship quality and subjective happiness: The mediator role of subjective vitality. Education and Science, 40, 233–242. http://doi.org/10/4hr

Akin, A., Akin, U., & Gediksiz, E. (2012). The Forgivingness Scale: The validity and reliability of the Turkish version [In Turkish]. Paper presented at the 1st Annual International Counseling and Education Conference, Istanbul, Turkey, May 3–5.

Akin, A., & Satici, S. A. (2011). Subjective Happiness Scale [In Turkish]. Sakarya University Journal of Education, 21, 65–77.

Ballester, S., Muñoz-Sastre, M. T., & Mullet, E. (2009). Forgivingness and lay conceptualizations of forgiveness. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 605–609. http://doi.org/fv3935

Berry, J. W., Worthington, E. L., Jr., O’Connor, L. E., Parrot, L., III, & Wade, N. G. (2005). Forgivingness, vengeful rumination, and affective traits. Journal of Personality, 73, 183–226. http://doi.org/cn5dzm

Brinker, J. K., & Dozois, D. J. A. (2009). Ruminative thought style and depressed mood. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65, 1–19. http://doi.org/ds66zk

Büyüköztürk, S. (2012). A handbook of data analysis (17th ed.) [In Turkish]. Ankara, Turkey: Pegem.

Deniz, M. E., Karakuş, Ö., Traş, Z., Eldeleklioğlu, J., Özyeşil, Z., & Hamarta, E. (2013). Parental attitude perceived by university students as predictors of subjective well-being and life satisfaction. Psychology, 4, 169–173. http://doi.org/34g

Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 542–575. http://doi.org/fgcwkb

Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55, 34–43. http://doi.org/cqx7nv

Diener, E., & Chan, M. Y. (1984). Happy people live longer: Subjective well-being contributes to health. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 3, 1–43. http://doi.org/ckbjqs

Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75. http://doi.org/fqqbmr

Diener, E., Inglehart, R., & Tay, L. (2013). Theory and validity of life satisfaction scales. Social Indicators Research, 112, 497–527. http://doi.org/nhf

Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2003). Personality, culture, and subjective well-being: Emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 403–425. http://doi.org/gts

Diener, E., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Very happy people. Psychological Science, 13, 81–84. http://doi.org/dbxs4f

Diener, E., Suh, E., & Oishi, S. (1997). Recent findings on subjective well-being. Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology, 24, 25–41.

Elliot, I., & Coker, S. (2008). Independent self-construal, self-reflection and self-rumination: A path model for predicting happiness. Australian Journal of Psychology, 60, 127–134. http://doi.org/dqtt42

Enright, R. D., & Fitzgibbons, R. P. (2000). Helping clients forgive: An empirical guide for resolving anger and restoring hope. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Eroğlu, Y., Eldeleklioğlu, J., & Mendi, E. (2014). Forgiveness and psychological resilience in adolescence. In K. Mortan, I. Hristov, O. Strelova, & Z. Kostova (Eds.), The science and education at the beginning of the 21st. century in Turkey (pp. 317–325). Sofia, Turkey: St. Kliment Ohridski University Press.

Extremera, N., Durán, A., & Rey, L. (2009). The moderating effect of trait meta-mood and perceived stress on life satisfaction. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 116–121. http://doi.org/cpnrsr

Fayyaz, F., & Besharat, M. A. (2011). Comparison of anger control in clinical depressed, non-clinical depressed and normal people. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 30, 94–97. http://doi.org/fz39t6

Froh, J. J., Fives, C. J., Fuller, J. R., Jacofsky, M. D., Terjesen, M. D., & Yurkewicz, C. (2007). Interpersonal relationships and irrationality as predictors of life satisfaction. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2, 29–39. http://doi.org/csn9zb

Furnham, A., & Cheng, H. (2000). Perceived parental behaviour, self-esteem and happiness. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 35, 463–470. http://doi.org/fnqc37

Johnson, D. P., Whisman, M. A., Corley, R. P., Hewitt, J. K., & Friedman, N. P. (2014). Genetic and environmental influences on rumination and its covariation with depression. Cognition & Emotion, 28, 1270–1286. http://doi.org/34j

Karatepe, H. T., Yavuz, F. K., & Turkcan, A. (2013). Validity and reliability of the Turkish version of the Ruminative Thought Style Questionnaire. Bulletin of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 23, 231–241. http://doi.org/34k

Köker, S. (1991). The comparison of life satisfaction levels in psychologically healthy and unhealthy adolescents [In Turkish]. Unpublished master’s thesis, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey.

Lawler-Row, K. A., Karremans, J. C., Scott, C., Edlis-Matityahu, M., & Edwards, L. (2008). Forgiveness, physiological reactivity and health: The role of anger. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 6, 51–58. http://doi.org/d3cctg

Layous K., Nelson, S. K., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2012). What is the optimal way to deliver a positive activity intervention? The case of writing about one’s best possible selves. Journal of Happiness Studies, 14, 635–654. http://doi.org/35w

Lee, J. Y., & Im, G. S. (2007). Self-enhancing bias in personality, subjective happiness, and perception of life events: A replication in a Korean aged sample. Aging and Mental Health, 11, 57–60. http://doi.org/fvrskd

Lyubomirsky, S. (2001). Why are some people happier than others? The role of cognitive and motivational processes in well-being. American Psychologist, 56, 239–249. http://doi.org/b883hz

Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803–855. http://doi.org/bcnt2d

Lyubomirsky, S., & Lepper, H. S. (1999). A measure of subjective happiness: Preliminary reliability and construct validation. Social Indicators Research, 46, 137–155. http://doi.org/bfpfhv

Lyubomirsky, S., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1995). Effects of self-focused rumination on negative thinking and interpersonal problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 176–190. http://doi.org/fgkc9s

Lyubomirsky, S., Tucker, K. L., Caldwell, N. D., & Berg, K. (1999). Why ruminators are poor problem solvers: Clues from the phenomenology of dysphoric rumination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1041–1060. http://doi.org/fp679x

Macaskill, A., Maltby J., & Day, L. (2002). Forgiveness of self and others, and emotional empathy. The Journal of Social Psychology, 142, 663–667. http://doi.org/c7w8fz

Maltby, J., Day, L., & Barber, L. (2004). Forgiveness and mental health variables: Interpreting the relationship using an adaptational-continuum model of personality and coping. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 1629–1641. http://doi.org/fkvh7m

Maltby, J., Day, L., & Barber, L. (2005). Forgiveness and happiness. The different contexts of forgiveness using the distinction between hedonic and eudaimonic happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, 6, 1–13. http://doi.org/dshszp

McCullough, M. E., Bellah, C. G., Kilpatrick, S. D., & Johnson, J. L. (2001). Vengefulness: Relationships with forgiveness, rumination, well-being, and the Big Five. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 601–610. http://doi.org/dz38f4

McCullough, M. E., Fincham, F. D., & Tsang, J. (2003). Forgiveness, forbearance, and time: The temporal unfolding of transgression-related interpersonal motivations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 540–557. http://doi.org/d2cdvm

McCullough, M. E., Pargament, K. I., & Thoresen, C. E. (2001). Forgiveness: Theory, research, and practice. New York: Guilford Press.

Muñoz-Sastre, T., Vinsonneau, G., Neto, F., Girard, M., & Mullet, E. (2003). Forgivingness and satisfaction with life. Journal of Happiness Studies, 4, 323–335. http://doi.org/drmk8k

Myers, D. G., & Diener, E. (1995). Who is happy? Psychological Science, 6, 10–19. http://doi.org/ffb7qx

Neff, K. D., & Germer, C. K. (2013). A pilot study and randomized controlled trial of the mindful self-compassion program. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69, 28–44. http://doi.org/m9v

Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1987). Sex differences in unipolar depression: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 259–282. http://doi.org/br5tf4

Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2004). Gender differences in risk factors and consequences for alcohol use and problems. Clinical Psychology Review, 24, 981–1010. http://doi.org/cvrhk5

Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Watkins, E. R. (2011). A heuristic for developing transdiagnostic models of psychopathology: Explaining multifinality and divergent trajectories. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 589–609. http://doi.org/dbb2cr

Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 400–424. http://doi.org/fbnqtj

Savi-Çakar, F., Tagay, Ö., & Karataş, Z. (2015). Adolescents’ life satisfaction: Risky behaviors and hopelessness. International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications, 6, 55–62.

Schiffrin, H. H., & Nelson, K. S. (2010). Stressed and happy? Investigating the relationship between happiness and perceived stress. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11, 33–39. http://doi.org/d78j5t

Seligman, M. E. (2006). Learned optimism: How to change your mind and your life. New York: Vintage.

Serin, N. B., Serin, O., & Özbaş, L. F. (2010). Predicting university students’ life satisfaction by their anxiety and depression level. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 9, 579–582. http://doi.org/bjxcgp

Smeets, E., Neff, K. D., Alberts, H., & Peters, M. (2014). Meeting suffering with kindness: Effects of a brief self-compassion intervention for female college students. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 70, 794–807. http://doi.org/35f

Suldo, S. M., & Huebner, E. S. (2004). Does life satisfaction moderate the effects of stressful life events on psychopathological behavior in adolescence? School Psychology Quarterly, 19, 93–105. http://doi.org/djzx28

Suldo, S. M., & Huebner, E. S. (2006). Is extremely high life satisfaction during adolescence advantageous? Social Indicators Research, 78, 179–203. http://doi.org/dwqb96

Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Experimental designs using ANOVA. Belmont, CA: Duxbury Press.

Takashi, O., & Kobayashi, M. (2011). Area-level income inequality and individual happiness: Evidence from Japan. Journal of Happiness Studies, 12, 633–649. http://doi.org/b9sb5t

Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 247–259. http://doi.org/dvn9n3

Tsai, W. (2010). Examining the relations between rumination and adjustment: A focus on ethnicity. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1HGLcgB

Uysal, R., Satıcı, S. A., Satıcı, B., & Akin, A. (2014). Subjective vitality as mediator and moderator of the relationship between life satisfaction and subjective happiness. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 14, 489–497. http://doi.org/35g

Veenhoven, R. (1994). Is happiness a trait? Social Indicators Research, 32, 101–160. http://doi.org/cxt44j

Worthington, E. L., Jr., Berry, J. W., & Parrott, L., III. (2001). Unforgiveness, forgiveness, religion, and health. In T. G. Plante & A. C. Sherman (Eds.), Faith and health: Psychological perspectives (pp. 107–138). New York: Guilford Press.

Ysseldyk, R., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2007). Rumination: Bridging a gap between forgivingness, vengefulness, and psychological health. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 1573–1584. http://doi.org/drb8w9

Jale Eldeleklioğlu, Department of Guidance and Counseling Psychology, Faculty of Education, Uludag University, Görükle Campus, 16285 Bursa, Turkey. Email: [email protected]