Teacher–student relationships (TSR) are widely acknowledged as a cornerstone of students’ academic engagement and socioemotional development, and teachers’ well-being (Li et al., 2022; Simon et al., 2022). Given the multifaceted implications for educational outcomes, addressing TSR dynamics is imperative (Robinson, 2022). Central to TSR development is teacher support, defined as educators’ provision of emotional, instrumental, and informational assistance, which has been identified as a critical determinant of TSR (Hagenauer & Volet, 2014; Wentzel, 2016). Prior studies have consistently demonstrated a direct association between perceived teacher support and positive TSR: Wang et al. (2024) revealed this support mitigates students’ anxiety about mathematics through positive TSR, and Zhang et al. (2022) corroborated the positive relationship between perceived teacher support and students’ perception of TSR quality.

 

From an ecological systems perspective (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), TSR emerge through reciprocal interactions between contextual support and individual dispositions. Teacher support, as a proximal contextual factor, is theorized to foster students’ sense of belonging, thereby enhancing relational trust and openness (Osterman, 2023). Yet, the psychological mechanisms translating external support into relational outcomes remain underexplored. Gratitude, a prosocial disposition characterized by recognizing and valuing others’ benevolence (McCullough et al., 2002), may mediate this process. Research has indicated that perceived support cultivates gratitude, which, in turn, strengthens individuals’ prosocial orientation and relationship quality (Algoe et al., 2013; L. K. Ma et al., 2017). In educational settings, students experiencing teacher support may internalize gratitude, prompting reciprocal positive behaviors that deepen TSR.

 

However, individual differences in humility, a trait marked by accurate self-assessment, openness to feedback, and appreciation of others’ strengths (Davis et al., 2013), may moderate this mediation. Humble students, characterized by reduced self-centering and heightened receptivity to external support, may exhibit amplified sensitivity to teachers’ supportive behaviors (Hill & Laney, 2017). Conversely, in contexts characterized by low humility, students may misinterpret teacher intentions or resist support, attenuating the mediating role of gratitude (Chen et al., 2025; Naini et al., 2021). Despite its theoretical salience, the synergistic interaction between humility and external support systems remains empirically understudied. Thus, we explored whether external support (i.e., teacher behaviors) and internal disposition (i.e., gratitude, humility) can jointly predict relational dynamics, advancing a holistic understanding of TSR development.

Affective events theory (AET) posits that environmental stimuli in organizational settings induce emotional responses, which subsequently influence individuals’ attitude and behavior (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). Within educational contexts, teacher support, a positive affective event, may evoke students’ gratitude, fostering attributions of teacher benevolence and motivating prosocial behaviors. These behaviors, in turn, strengthen TSR by reinforcing reciprocal trust and collaboration (McCullough et al., 2002; Zhen et al., 2021). Moreover, trait activation theory (TAT; Tett & Burnett, 2003) suggests that humility, as a personality trait, moderates how students interpret and respond to teacher support. Humble students are more likely to perceive teacher support as genuine care rather than control, thereby amplifying the mediating role of gratitude. Conversely, students with low humility may exhibit defensive attribution biases, undermining the capacity of gratitude in enhancing relational bonds (Davis et al., 2013; Tangney, 2000). Integrating these perspectives, we proposed a conceptual model (see Figure 1) wherein perceived teacher support influences TSR through gratitude, with humility moderating this indirect pathway.

Empirical research has underscored the direct association between teacher support and TSR (Wang et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2022). Such support addresses students’ fundamental psychological needs, including relatedness, autonomy, and competence, thereby fostering trust, which is a cornerstone of positive interpersonal relationships (Pratt & Dirks, 2007; Tang et al., 2021). Thus, students who perceive supportive teacher behaviors are more inclined to engage openly, reducing defensiveness and nurturing mutual respect. Therefore, we proposed the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1: Perceived teacher support will be positively related to teacher–student relationships.

 

According to AET, when teachers provide academic assistance, emotional encouragement, or instrumental aid, this perceived support functions as an affective event that students evaluate as beneficial, thereby activating gratitude as a specific emotional response. Researchers have linked teachers’ supportive interventions to enhanced student well-being and academic outcomes, with students often interpreting such behaviors as being indicative of care and concern (Liauw et al., 2018). Research in social psychology has underscored the role of gratitude in initiating reciprocal positive behaviors, such as cooperation and altruism, which create self-reinforcing cycles of relational investment (Emmons & Shelton, 2002; Fazal-e-Hasan et al., 2021). In educational contexts, students who perceive teacher support may exhibit gratitude-driven prosociality, thereby deepening trust and mutual respect, two core components of TSR quality (Zhen et al., 2021). Therefore, we proposed the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2: Gratitude will mediate the positive relationship between perceived teacher support and teacher–student relationships.

 

TAT extends this model by emphasizing the moderating role of humility. Central to this theory is the foundational tenet that personality traits elicit behavioral expression only when situational antecedents align with trait-congruent environmental contexts. In this case, teacher support serves as the situational trigger, while student humility as a trait amplifies or attenuates emotional and relational outcomes. Humble students, being less constrained by self-protective biases, are inclined to interpret teacher support as altruistic care, thereby enhancing the relational benefits of gratitude (Davis et al., 2013; Exline, 2012). Their interdependent orientation fosters trust, a critical determinant of TSR (Pratt & Dirks, 2007).  Conversely, low humility may engender skepticism toward teacher intentions, attenuating the mediating role of gratitude (Chen et al., 2025; Naini et al., 2021). Therefore, we proposed the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 3: Humility will moderate the indirect effect of perceived teacher support on teacher–student relationships through gratitude.

We adopted convenience sampling to recruit 500 undergraduate students from our two universities. After excluding incomplete responses, 387 valid cases were retained (198 men, 189 women; age range = 18–23 years). The sample comprised 101 first-year students, 108 second-year students, 130 third-year students, and 48 fourth-year students. Ethical approval was granted by the ethics committee at Hangzhou Dianzi University.

 

Fifteen trained school counselors facilitated data collection. Surveys were administered during scheduled class sessions using anonymous paper-based questionnaires, which took 10–15 minutes to complete. Completed surveys were collected immediately and returned to the research team. Data collection concluded at the end of a 3-week period, after which responses were coded and analyzed.

We assessed perceived teacher support using Turner et al.’s (2013) four-item scale. A sample item is “My teacher respects my opinion.” We assessed gratitude using McCullough et al.’s (2002) six-item scale, removing one item to enhance reliability. A sample item is “I am grateful to a wide variety of people.” Further, we assessed humility using Owens et al.’s (2013) nine-item scale, excluding two items for reliability optimization. A sample item is “I’m open to the ideas of others.” Finally, we assessed TSR using Li et al.’s (2022) five-item scale. A sample item is “My teacher knows me and cares about me.” Items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Demographic variables, such as gender and age, were included as covariates.

We conducted data analysis using SPSS 22.0 and Hayes’ PROCESS macro 3.30. Mediation and moderated mediation effects were tested using 5,000 bootstrapped resamples to generate 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals.

We adopted Harman’s single-factor test to check for common method bias. An unrotated factor analysis showed that four factors were generated, with the first factor accounting for 24.96% of the variance (< 40% threshold), indicating there was no serious common method bias in this study.

The descriptive statistics, bivariate correlations, and internal consistency estimates (Cronbach’s α) for all study variables are shown in Table 1. After controlling for the covariates, a hierarchical regression analysis revealed a significant direct effect of perceived teacher support on TSR in the initial model (Path c), indicating that perceived teacher support positively predicted TSR. Then, we employed the PROCESS macro to examine the indirect pathway through the mediator of gratitude. The results indicated there were significant indirect effects: perceived teacher support positively predicted gratitude (Path a), which, in turn, positively predicted TSR (Path b). Moreover, the direct effect of perceived teacher support on TSR remained significant (Path c’). These findings provided empirical support for Hypotheses 1 and 2, demonstrating that gratitude partially mediated the association between perceived teacher support and TSR (see Figure 2).

We conducted a hierarchical regression analysis to examine the proposed moderated mediation model, with gratitude serving as the dependent variable. The results indicated significant main effects for perceived teacher support and humility in predicting gratitude. Critically, the interaction term between perceived teacher support and humility emerged as a significant predictor of gratitude, indicating that humility moderated the initial pathway of the indirect effect linking perceived teacher support to TSR (see Table 2).

To test the moderated mediation effect, we employed the PROCESS macro for SPSS, operationalizing high humility (M + 1 SD) and low humility (M − 1 SD) from the sample mean (M). As shown in Table 3, the index of moderated mediation was significant, with the indirect effect of perceived teacher support on TSR via gratitude being substantially stronger among students with higher humility, compared to those with lower humility. This pattern of results provided empirical support for Hypothesis 3, demonstrating that the mediating role of gratitude in the relationship between perceived teacher support and TSR was contingent upon students’ humility.

Consistent with prior research (Wang et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2022), this study found a positive association between perceived teacher support and TSR, underscoring the pivotal role of teacher support in fostering positive teacher–student interactions. Furthermore, gratitude emerged as an important psychological mechanism in this relationship, such that perceived teacher support evoked feelings of gratitude in students, which subsequently fostered trust and openness between teachers and students, thereby reinforcing relational bonds. This mediation pathway aligns with the core tenets of AET, which posits that situational stimuli (e.g., supportive teacher behaviors) trigger emotional responses (e.g., gratitude) that subsequently influence downstream behavioral and relational outcomes (e.g., proactive engagement with teachers).

 

We also revealed the important moderating role of student humility in this indirect effect. Specifically, the conditional indirect effect of perceived teacher support on TSRs via gratitude was stronger among students with high, compared to low, humility. This interaction pattern suggests that humility amplifies the perceptual salience of teacher support, thereby intensifying the rational benefits of gratitude. Conversely, students with less humility may exhibit defensive attribution biases, misinterpreting support as an act to control, and attenuating the mediating effect of gratitude. These findings provide empirical support for TAT, demonstrating that personality traits, like humility, are expressed in specific situations (e.g., receiving teacher support), and subsequently shape individual emotional and behavioral reactions.

This study makes several important theoretical contributions. First, by integrating and empirically validating a multivariate mediated moderation framework, this research explored the complex interplay among perceived teacher support, gratitude, humility, and TSR. Where prior research has examined these constructs in isolation or through simplistic bivariate lenses (Wang et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2022; Zhen et al., 2021), our model offers a theoretically richer account by demonstrating the role of gratitude as a proximal affective mechanism converting external support into relational improvement, while simultaneously revealing how this inductive process is contingent upon individual differences in humility. Second, the findings extend AET into educational contexts by demonstrating how teacher support, a situational antecedent, triggers gratitude, an emotional response that subsequently influences important relational outcomes. Third, the moderating role of humility contributes to TAT by illustrating how this trait interacts with situational factors (teacher support) to predict emotional experiences (gratitude) and ultimately, behavioral outcomes (TSR). This highlights the importance of considering both situational and individual difference factors when examining educational phenomena.

The findings of this study hold significant practical implications. First, the study emphasizes the crucial role of teacher support in fostering positive TSR. It is recommended that educators prioritize the provision of consistent and authentic support. This can be achieved through active listening, timely assistance, constructive feedback, and the creation of safe and inclusive learning environments. Second, given the mediating role of gratitude, interventions aimed at cultivating student gratitude may serve to enhance TSR. Gratitude-focused activities, such as gratitude journals, gratitude letters, or gratitude discussions, may increase students’ awareness of teacher support and strengthen teacher–student connections. Third, the moderating effect of humility underscores the necessity for personalized support. Educators should be mindful of individual differences in student humility. For students with lower levels of humility, teachers may need to adopt strategies to explicitly build trust and demonstrate genuine care, such as transparent communication, opportunities for student voice, and consistent reinforcement of unconditional support. Furthermore, explicitly teaching and modeling humility as a desirable trait may enhance students’ responsiveness to teacher support and promote positive TSR.

First, the use of cross-sectional data restricts the ability to draw causal inferences. Future research could consider employing longitudinal or experimental designs to further validate the robustness of the model. Second, while a general gratitude scale was chosen for its validity and focus on trait-level gratitude, it may not fully reflect teacher-specific gratitude tied to perceived support and TSR. Future research could develop or adapt scales targeting gratitude toward teachers. Third, gratitude and humility were key variables, but another mediator or moderator, such as mianzi stress (psychological pressure from face-saving concerns; B. Ma et al., 2018), may also influence these relationships and warrant further investigation.

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