Personality characteristics of martial artists
Main Article Content
This study used the MMPI-2 to explore the personalities of yellow-belt and black-belt martial artists. A total of 40 participants completed the MMPI-2 and a demographic questionnaire. Black-belt females tended to be less defensive than were other martial artists, but also displayed more paranoia and more anger than average. Females of both ranks reported a higher degree of anxiety and health concerns than did males in the study, and black-belt females also reported more family problems than did other groups. Finally, black belts in general reported more health concerns than did yellow belts.
Understanding the personality of athletes has been the topic of much research. For example, Eysenck, Nias, and Cox (1982) proposed that there is sufficient evidence to “conclude that there are undoubtedly fairly close relationships between personality . . . and sporting activity [However,] these relationships must always be qualified by the level of activity reached by the competitor, by the specific type of sport indulged in, and even by particular parameters within a given sport” (p. 49). The present paper examines personality characteristics as they relate specifically to martial artists.
Martial artists have suggested for years that training offers psychological benefits. Aikido, jiu jitsu, judo, karate, kung fu, taekwondo, and tai chi are only a few of the martial arts practiced on a daily basis by over 5 million people in the United States (Katz, 1998). Although physical factors (exercise, self-defense, etc.) may be the clearest benefits of practicing the martial arts, it has also been suggested that martial arts can improve self-confidence, self efficacy, control over fears, and lower inclinations towards aggression (see Hyams, 1982).
Researchers interested in the martial arts have studied such variables as aggressiveness (e.g., Nosanchuk & MacNeil, 1989); anxiety (e.g., Kurian, Caterino, & Kulhavy, 1993); energy management (e.g., Seitz, Olson, Locke, & Quam, 1990); feelings of control and vulnerability (e.g., Madden, 1995); hostility (e.g., Rothpearl, 1980); mood and affect (e.g., McGowan, Pierce, & Jordan, 1992); neuroticism and extraversion (e.g., Layton, 1988); and self-concept, self esteem, and self-reliance (e.g., Kurian, Verdi, Caterino, & Kulhavy, 1994).
Aggression in particular is illustrative. Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963) found that children can learn aggressive responding by observing an adult exhibit the behavior. It seems plausible then that martial arts students could learn to respond with physical aggression in conflicts that would not warrant such action, by emulating their instructors’ techniques. Moreover, such aggression could reasonably be reinforced by consequences such as winning a fight, earning respect from peers, fear from opponents, and a feeling of physical self-efficacy. As a result, aggression might gain a high degree of utility and could be repeated when situational cues obtain (e.g., Perry, Perry, & Rasmussen, 1986).
Importantly however, research suggests that social learning theory does not readily apply to aggression in martial arts as in sport. For example, both Nosanchuk (1981) and Rothpearl (1979) have found that aggression was negatively correlated with belt level. Similarly, Nosanchuk and MacNeil (1989) found that aggressiveness was lower for advanced students than for elementary students.
Such evidence indicates that higher-ranking students tend to be less aggressive, however, it is unclear whether these results are caused by aggressive individuals dropping out before gaining higher belt ranks, or from the influence of the martial arts training. Some (e.g., Back & Kim, 1982) believe that the martial arts reduce aggressiveness because actions are focused toward self-defense without hostility. Similarly, empirical studies of several styles of karate have been interpreted by some researchers as evidence that practitioners learn nonviolence rather than violence (e.g., Layton, 1993).
Research also supports the idea that martial arts can enhance other aspects of personality, specifically self-concept and self-esteem. For example, Finkenberg (1990) studied college women enrolled in taekwondo classes as well as women enrolled in general education classes, finding that those studying taekwondo displayed improvement on the Tennessee Self Concept Scale relative to those in the general education classes. Likewise, Richman and Rehberg (1986) reported that karate students’ scores on the Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale correlated positively with their self perceptions of their abilities and conditioning relative to other students at their class. Similarly, Kurian et al. (1994) found that belt rank was correlated with self-reliance and enthusiastic optimism in boys.
Kurian et al. (1993) also studied anxiety in adults enrolled in taekwondo. Participants were divided into two groups based on years of training, and the group with longer training showed lower scores on anxiety and higher scores on independence using the 16-Personality Factors. In another study of anxiety and martial arts training, Layton (1990) administered the State Trait Anxiety Inventory to karate students ranging in ability from novice to advanced black belt. Lower ranking students differed from top ranking students on both A Trait and A State anxiety, with the black belts scoring notably lower on both. Using the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, Layton (1988) also found that male black belt holders scored lower on Extraversion and Neuroticism than did lower ranking male students. Further, Madden (1990) found that beginner’s karate and self defense courses enhanced students’ feelings of control and also reduced depression and perceived vulnerability.
Research has also explored the parallel course of psychotherapy and the martial arts. Indeed, it has been suggested that martial arts can be used as an adjunct to traditional psychotherapy (e.g., Konzak & Boudreau, 1984; Seitz et al., 1990; Weiser, Kutz, Kutz, & Weiser, 1995). Based on an extensive literature review, Fuller (1988) even noted: “From a psychotherapeutic viewpoint, the martial arts may be viewed as formalized, refined systems of human potential training which provide interesting practical models and mechanisms of psychological intervention” (p. 318).
Given the variety of people involved in martial arts training, the influence of this training on personality is of some importance to parents, policy makers, and educators. Although one of the martial arts’ stated purposes is the realization of human growth potential, martial training occurs in an environment of physical aggression. The effect of this environment on students participating in the martial arts is not yet clear and warrants further investigation. A case has been made for the benefits of the martial arts based on anecdotal evidence, and some research has validated improved personality characteristics at higher levels of martial arts practice. Something that has been hinted at, but has yet to be explored, is the lowered incidence of psychopathology exhibited by upper level martial artists.
The purpose of this study was to use the MMPI 2 to explore the personality characteristics of beginning- and upper-level martial artists, with a focus on hostility and psychopathology.
Method
Participants
Participants were black belt and yellow belt (the first colored belt rank) members of the Vanderbilt Taekwondo Black Belt Association and the Taiho Ryu Karate organization. Forty participants voluntarily completed the testing battery; one participant was eliminated from data analysis because of invalidating responses (F scale T score > 80).
The average age of the 20 black belt participants was 38.3 years, with a range from 21 to 55 years. Seventeen of the black belts were male, and three were female. Black belts had an average of 16.5 years of education (range 12–23 years). The average age of the yellow belt participants was 33.7 years, with a range from 21 to 47 years. Thirteen of the 19 yellow belts were male, and six were female. Yellow belts had an average of 14.85 years of education (range 12–24). All of the yellow belts were Caucasians, whereas eighteen of the black belts were Caucasians, one was African-American, and one was Asian-American.
Materials
Each participant received the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory– 2nd edition (MMPI-2; Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) soft cover test booklet and answer sheet, along with a brief demographic questionnaire. The MMPI-2 is a self-report measure of personality and psycho- pathology. It consists of 567 empirically derived true-false items.
The MMPI-2 was scored to obtain the standard validity scales, the 10 clinical scales, the 15 content scales, and 1 special subscale: the Cook and Medley Hostility Scale (HO; Cook & Medley, 1954). In addition, a summary measure of general maladjustment (viz., M8) was obtained by computing the mean T score of 8 clinical scales (Hypochondriasis, Depression, Hysteria, Psychopathic Deviate, Paranoia, Psychasthenia, Schizophrenia, and Hypomania). M8 is a particularly robust MMPI-2 index of general maladjustment (see Graham, Barthlow, Stein, Ben-Porath, & McNulty, 2002).
Since its development, HO has been used to examine the effects of hostility on a person’s health and well being. Barefoot, Dodge, Peterson, Dahlstrom, and Williams (1989) analyzed the item content of HO and concluded that it measures “beliefs about the trustworthiness of others, negative emotions associated with social relationships, and aggressive behavior toward others” (p. 52). Barefoot et al. suggested that HO can be used as a measure of hostile attribution bias, and Costa, Zonderman, McCrae, and Williams (1986) have supported that conclusion. Han, Weed, Calhoun, and Butcher (1995) reported that four factors are represented in HO: cynicism, hypersensitivity, aggressive responding, and avoidance of social contact.
Low Self-Esteem (LSE; Butcher, Graham, Williams, & Ben-Porath, 1990) is one of the content scales developed for use with the MMPI-2. LSE is significantly correlated with the Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale (-.69; Rosenberg, 1965) and with the Adult Self-Perception Profile (-.54; Harter, 1986). Internal consistency, determined by Cronbach’s alpha, is .79 for men and .83 for women. Test-retest reliability is .84 for men and .86 for women. Brems and Lloyd (1995) found that LSE tapped three separate but related factors: ineptitude, negative self-value, and negative comparison with others.
Procedure
Following informed consent procedures and a standardized instructional statement regarding this study of “the personality of martial artists,” participants completed a demographic questionnaire and then the MMPI-2. Participants were tested in small groups.
Results
Black belts began martial arts training at an earlier age than yellow belts (22.95 vs. 31.05 years). Black belts were involved in an average of 1.25 physical altercations in the three years prior to their martial arts training, whereas yellow belts were involved in an average of 0.20 such incidents. Black belts had been involved in an average of 1.05 fights since they began training, whereas yellow belts had been in an average of 0.25. None of the participants reported having ever committed a violent crime.
Three 2 (belt level) × 2 (gender) analyses of variance (ANOVA) were completed using LSE, HO, and M8 as dependent variables. The null hypothesis was not rejected with LSE and HO as dependent measures. However, significant effects were found for belt, F(1, 36) = 4.43, p = .042, and gender, F(1, 36) = 10.13, p = .003, with M8 as the dependent variable. There were no significant interaction effects. Table 1 lists the means by group.
A 2 × 2 × 3 MANOVA with the L, F, and K validity scales as dependent variables revealed nonsignificant main effects for belt and gender, although a significant interaction effect was found for belt and gender, F(3, 34) = 4.59, p = .008. Univariate F tests resulted in significant belt x gender interaction effects for the L-scale (F(1, 36) = 4.36, p = .044) and the F scale (F(1, 36) = 7.68, p = .009). On the L-scale, yellow belt females had the highest average score (M = 51.00, SD = 2.77), followed by yellow belt males (M = 49.64, SD = 1.82), black belt males (M = 49.34, SD = 1.65), and black belt females (M = 39.33, SD = 3.92). On the F-scale, black belt females had the highest average scores (M = 60.33, SD = 5.28), followed by yellow belt males (M = 52.29, SD = 2.45), black belt males (M = 47.32, SD = 2.22), and yellow belt females (M = 44.67, SD = 3.74).
Table 1. Mean Clinical Scale Elevation by Belt Level and Gender
Note: M8 = mean T score of the following clinical scales from the MMPI-2: Hypochondriasis, Depression, Hysteria, Psychopathic Deviate, Paranoia, Psychasthenia, Schizophrenia, and Hypomania.
A MANOVA was used to explore the 10 MMPI-2 clinical scales, resulting in nonsignificant main effects for belt and the belt × gender interaction. A significant main effect for gender was detected, F(10, 27) = 4.00, p = .002. Univariate F-tests revealed that females scored higher than did males on scale 1 (Hypochondriasis; M = 55.00, SD = 3.04 vs. M = 46.42, SD = 1.55; F(1, 36) = 6.31, p = .017), scale 5 (Masculinity-Femininity; M = 56.75, SD = 3.09 vs. M = 45.65, SD = 1.58; F(1, 36) = 10.23, p = .003), scale 6 (Paranoia; M = 62.83, SD = 3.51 vs. M = 49.00, SD = 1.79; F(1, 36) = 12.30, p = .001) and scale 7 (Psychasthenia; M = 54.75, SD = 3.21 vs. M = 46.27, SD = 1.64; F(1, 36) = 5.55, p = .024).
The content scales served as dependent variables for the final MANOVA. Significant effects were found for belt, F(15, 22) = 2.05, p = .009; gender, F(15, 22) = 2.02, p = .010; and the belt x gender interaction, F(15, 22) = 1.89, p = .015. Univariate F tests that followed the interaction effect were significant for Anger (ANG), F(1, 36) = 15.91, p < .001; Social Discomfort (SOD), F(1, 36) = 9.38, p = .004; and Family Problems (FAM), F(1, 36) = 5.68, p = .023 (see Figure 1). Post hoc comparisons on the simple effects associated with the interaction main effect using Tukey’s HSD indicated that black-belt females scored significantly higher on ANG (M = 66.67, SD = 4.50) than did the other three groups (yellow belt males, black belt males, yellow belt females), which did not differ from each other. Tukey’s HSD test did not differentiate the four groups on SOD or FAM.
Gender effects were noted for Anxiety (ANX) and Health Concerns (HEA), with females scoring significantly higher than males on ANX (M = 56.75, SD = 3.04 vs. M = 49.11, SD = 1.55; F(1, 36) = 5.00, p = .032) and HEA (M = 57.25, SD = 2.31 vs. M = 46.95, SD = 1.18; F(1, 36) = 16.87, p < .001). Finally, two belt effects were noted on Type A Behavior (TPA) and HEA, such that black belts scored significantly higher on TPA (M = 53.70, SD = 2.73 vs. M = 44.86, SD = 2.12; F(1, 36) = 6.55, p = .015), and HEA (M = 56.32, SD = 2.05 vs. M = 47.58, SD = 1.60; F(1, 36) = 11.16, p = .002).
Figure 1. The graphed mean content scores for Anger (ANG), Social Discomfort (SOD), and Family Problems (FAM). These represent the significant content scales associated with the interaction of belt and gender.
Discussion
Previous research (e.g., Finkenberg, 1990; Kurian et al., 1994; Richman & Rehberg, 1986) has reported that self-esteem and self-reliance are positively correlated with rank and that martial artists show improved self-concept compared to nonmartial-artists. By contrast, the present study found no evidence for improved self-esteem with rank. However, because the participants in this study scored within normal limits on the LSE, it suggests that they have no more self-esteem issues than the general population. Similarly, Rothpearl (1979) found that students showed reduced aggressiveness with an increase in taekwondo rank. Again, the present study failed to support these findings. However, our participants scored within normal limits on HO, suggesting that they are no more likely to view ambiguous situations as warranting retaliation than would the general population.
One interesting finding is that black belts scored higher than yellow belts on an index of psychopathology, M8, the average elevation of eight clinical scales of the MMPI-2. At first glance, this suggests an adverse effect for long-term martial arts practice. However, closer examination reveals that black belts scored closer to the normative mean than did yellow belts.
Women had higher MMPI-2 M8 values than men, yet, both means were within normal limits. Black belt females also tended to be less defensive than their male counterparts, and than yellow belts. Their level of responding on the F-scale indicates that they function adequately in their daily lives but may suffer from difficulties in one or more problem areas, such as work, health, or family relationships.
The present study also revealed that women in these martial arts schools obtained higher elevations on four clinical scales of the MMPI-2 than did their male classmates: Hypochondriasis, Masculinity-Femininity, Paranoia, and Psychasthenia. Additionally, the Masculinity-Femininity scale results suggest that women were more masculine than their male counterparts were feminine. This finding makes intuitive sense, as the martial arts focus on areas traditionally of masculine interest.
Black belt females displayed significantly higher scores on the measure of anger than did the other three groups. Their level of responding was above the T-score of 65 designated for clinical significance. Scores above 65 on the ANG scale suggest that the respondent may be grouchy, irritable, impatient, stubborn, and may have a desire to swear and/or smash things. In addition, black-belt females tended to have lower scores on the Social Discomfort scale. Such females are comfortable in groups of people and will initiate conversations with others. Thus, a positive result of being a female black belt may be a lowered sense of discomfort in social settings.
A final interaction effect was noted on the Family Problems content scale. Although the females’ scores fell short of reaching clinical significance, the high-ranking females nevertheless may be resentful of familial directives and advice, feel less love and support from their families, and respond with anger towards their families. A number of possibilities account for this result. Black belt females tended to be less defensive than other groups in responding to the MMPI-2, which implies that they would admit to difficulties that others might hide. Black belt females freely admit to more angry feelings in general, which would include anger towards their families. Black belt females are also more masculine than other females, which might place them at odds with their families over socially accepted female behaviors.
Females of both ranks reported a higher degree of anxiety and health concerns than did the males in the study, and black belts reported significantly more health concerns than the yellow belts. As the ranks did not differ in mean age, the finding might best be explained by the training itself. Martial arts training can be very demanding on the body, so perhaps years of such activity have resulted in increased sensitivity to physical problems. One other possibility is that black belts have more tangible and socioemotional resources invested in this physical activity, and subsequently are more concerned about injuries and physical problems.
In closing, the present study found that for the majority of participants scores were within normal limits for clinical significance, with two noticeable exceptions: (1) Upper-level female practitioners reported meaningful negative characteristics on Paranoia and Anger, and (2) at the same time, they tended to be less defensive and reported low levels of Social Discomfort. Generally these findings concur with the body of research that suggests that martial arts may be beneficial to students. However, women may want to consider the elevated traits found in this study before embarking on long-term martial arts training.
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Table 1. Mean Clinical Scale Elevation by Belt Level and Gender
Note: M8 = mean T score of the following clinical scales from the MMPI-2: Hypochondriasis, Depression, Hysteria, Psychopathic Deviate, Paranoia, Psychasthenia, Schizophrenia, and Hypomania.
Figure 1. The graphed mean content scores for Anger (ANG), Social Discomfort (SOD), and Family Problems (FAM). These represent the significant content scales associated with the interaction of belt and gender.
Appreciation is due to reviewers including
Stuart J. McKelvie
PhD
Department of Psychology
Bishop&rsquo
s University
Route 108 East
Borough of Lennoxville
Sherbrooke
Qué
bec J1M 1Z7
Canada
Claudio Robazza
Dipartmento di Scienze Mediche e Chirurgiche
Polo 40 Semeiotica Medica
Via Ospedale Civile
105
35128
Padova
Italy
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