Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) refers to self-injurious behaviors of intentional destruction or alteration of body tissue (e.g., burning, cutting, or scraping skin) without suicidal intent (Nock, 2010). NSSI peaks in adolescence, and in research conducted in the United States of America 17.2% of adolescents reported deliberately injuring themselves at least once in their life (Nock et al., 2013). NSSI is related not only to physical injuries ranging in medical severity, but also presents a threat to the psychosocial development of adolescents worldwide (Ghinea et al., 2021); therefore, it is a serious public health problem that needs to be prevented and treated. Given the adverse outcomes associated with NSSI among adolescents, it is essential to shed light on the factors influencing this behavior. As a familial factor, the impact of harsh parenting on adolescent NSSI is noteworthy. Additionally, according to the four-function model of NSSI (Nock, 2009), the emergence and maintenance of NSSI are reinforced by internal positive reinforcement and internal negative reinforcement, and by interpersonal positive reinforcement and interpersonal negative reinforcement. Internal positive and negative reinforcement consists of stimulation that is generated by NSSI behavior to distract from or reduce attention to aversive feelings or thoughts. Interpersonal positive and negative reinforcement occurs as NSSI is conducive to help seeking, allowing individuals to escape from aversive social situations. One reason for the emergence of NSSI is to relieve negative emotions and escape from bad interpersonal relationships. Therefore, it is necessary for researchers to direct their attention to the influence of insecurity (rejection sensitivity) and emotional problems (depression) arising from harsh parenting on adolescent NSSI.

The family is the basic setting for the socialization process of the individual, in which parents play a vital role in the social development of their children (Bronfenbrenner, 1986). Family systems theory indicates individual psychological development is intricately intertwined with broader social systems (Cox & Paley, 1997). The focus in a growing body of research has been on the adverse effects of harsh parenting on the physical and mental health of children and adolescents (Q. Liu & Hu, 2020). In the traditional Chinese cultural context, harsh parenting behaviors are often perceived as manifestations of parental engagement, care, and affection (J. Liu et al., 2021; M. Wang & Liu, 2014). Consequently, around half of Chinese parents continue to employ the style of harsh parenting in rearing their children (M. Wang & Liu, 2014).

 

Harsh parenting refers to a wide range of behaviors characterized by parents who are rough when dealing with their children’s behaviors, emotions, and attitudes in the course of parenting (M. Wang et al., 2016). Such behaviors include disciplinary actions such as yelling at, slapping, or spanking the child, or the use of objects like sticks or whips to administer punishment (Surjadi et al., 2013); these behaviors are often accompanied by psychological abuse (Conger et al., 2012). In response to the stress of receiving harsh parental discipline, adolescents may resort to maladaptive ways to alleviate their negative emotions (Wei et al., 2021). Researchers have confirmed that maladaptive parenting patterns positively predict NSSI among adolescents. Specifically, parental rejection, punishment, deprivation of autonomy or independence, excessive interference in personal affairs, and overindulgence have been positively associated with NSSI behaviors (Shi & Liu, 2020). Moreover, in the four-function model of NSSI, Nock (2009) suggests that family conflicts may impact an individual’s social functioning (emotional regulation and interpersonal communication), subsequently leading to the manifestation of NSSI behaviors. Therefore, we proposed the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1: Harsh parenting will be positively related to adolescents’ nonsuicidal self-injurious behaviors.

Downey and Feldman (1996) defined rejection sensitivity as a kind of worry individuals have about being rejected in social interactions. It includes negative expectations of social relationships that are characterized by concern and fear of potential rejection, discomfort, and distressing experiences in interpersonal interactions (Y. Zhang & Li, 2013). Feldman and Downey (1994) demonstrated through theoretical reasoning and empirical research that rejection sensitivity may arise from an individual’s early experiences of rejection by parents and peers, which can affect psychosocial functioning. Research has consistently shown a significant correlation between negative parenting styles and both favoritism and rejection sensitivity (Kolcheva, 2022). Furthermore, researchers have conducted longitudinal studies to validate the role of rejection sensitivity in adolescents’ social–emotional development (Marston et al., 2010). The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) highlights that interpersonal difficulties commonly precede NSSI behaviors. The  four-function model of NSSI also suggests that adolescents engaging in NSSI perceive greater pressure and exhibit higher levels of interpersonal sensitivity during conflicts, compared to peers who do not engage in NNSI (Nock, 2010). Individuals may choose impulsive engagement in NSSI behavior to alleviate their emotional distress and social pain resulting from interpersonal rejection (Santangelo et al., 2017). In summary, we proposed our second hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2: Rejection sensitivity will mediate the association between harsh parenting practices and adolescents’ nonsuicidal self-injury.

Depression is a prominent affective disorder that poses a threat to the emotional and social development of adolescents (Park et al., 2016). Negative social events or experiences are thought to be vital triggers of depression (Lau & Waters, 2017), along with dysfunctional family relationships involving behaviors such as abuse or neglect (Mo et al., 2021). Researchers have found that poor parenting styles, such as harsh parenting and emotional abuse, significantly predict the onset of depressive symptoms in adolescents (Paterniti et al., 2017; Tang et al., 2018). Children who grow up with harsh parenting are chronically exposed to stressful situations, leading to adverse emotional responses, such as anger, depression, and mood disorders (J. Liu et al., 2021; M. Wang et al., 2016). Correspondingly, experiencing negative emotions increases susceptibility to NSSI, and engaging in NSSI results in a reduction in negative emotions alongside an augmentation of positive emotions (Kranzler et al., 2018). Meanwhile, the four-function model of NSSI indicates that the maintenance of NSSI is influenced by internal positive and negative reinforcement, whereby performing NSSI is a distraction to alleviate aversive feelings or thoughts (Nock, 2009). J. Liu et al. (2021) also found that depression played a mediating role in the relationship between harsh parenting and NSSI. In light of the preceding discussion, we formulated our next hypothesis:

Hypothesis 3: Depression will mediate the association between harsh parenting practices and adolescents’ nonsuicidal self-injury.

As a cognitive–affective bias, rejection sensitivity may lead to emotional and behavioral overreactions, and may result in exaggerated responses toward threatening and ambiguous interpersonal relationships (Caculidis-Tudor et al., 2023). Consequently, rejection sensitivity can render individuals susceptible to depression (Niu et al., 2023). Simultaneously, based on the four-function model of NSSI, the initiation and perpetuation of NSSI behaviors are influenced by social factors, such as providing an escape from aversive social environments or alleviating negative emotions. Rejection sensitivity, serving as a cognitive distortion rooted in fear of negative interpersonal relationships, further impacts an individual’s experience of depression. This may lead individuals to engage in NSSI to reduce these negative emotions. Therefore, we proposed the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 4: Rejection sensitivity and depression will act as sequential mediators of the association between harsh parenting practices and adolescents’ nonsuicidal self-injury.

In accordance with the Monte Carlo power analysis procedure, we predetermined the sample size needed to achieve statistical power of .80 and an alpha value of .05 (Schoemann et al., 2017). We integrated effect sizes derived from prior research to estimate the association between harsh parenting and NSSI (r = .37; Gu et al., 2023), depression (r = .48; D. Wang et al., 2024), and rejection sensitivity (smallest effect size of r = .15), depression and NSSI (r = .40; S. Liu et al., 2024), rejection sensitivity and depression (r = .33; Gao et al., 2017), as well as rejection sensitivity and NSSI (r = .26; Jiang et al., 2021). This revealed that we required 1,130 participants to test the proposed model. Through random cluster sampling, we selected 1,475 students at Zaozhuang Experimental Primary School, Zaozhuang Experimental Middle School, Zaozhuang No. 15 Middle School, and Tengzhou Baogou Central Primary School, all of which are located in Zaozhuang City, Shandong Province, China. We received valid data from 1,408 students (776 boys, 632 girls; M_age = 13.01 years, SD = 1.46, range = 10–17). We excluded from the study all respondents who failed the lie-detection items.

After obtaining informed consent from both the participants and their parents or guardians, the head teacher at each school distributed a survey link to the students and offered them necessary guidance. Data were collected via an online platform, with the entire class being sampled. The study procedures adhered to the ethical criteria established by the Ethics Review Committee of Zhejiang Dongfang Polytechnic and the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki.

The scale we used to measure harsh parenting (M. Wang, 2017) encompasses four items applicable to both fathers and mothers. A sample item is “When I do something wrong, my father/my mother tells me to leave and even locks me out.” Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = never that way, 5 = always that way). In this study Cronbach’s alpha was .88.

The NSSI scale was developed by Feng (2008) and revised by Ying et al. (2016). It includes 18 items, such as “Deliberately cut my own skin with glass, knife, etc.” Items are scored on a 4-point scale (1 = never, 4 = more than five times). In this study Cronbach’s alpha was .89.

The Rejection Sensitivity Scale was developed by Downey et al. (1998) and revised into Chinese by W. Zhang et al. (2020). The scale consists of six scenarios, with three items under each scenario. A sample scenario is “Imagine that you are the last student in your class to go to lunch. When you were walking down the stairs to the dining hall, you heard some students whispering downstairs.” A sample item for this scenario is “Do you get nervous when you wonder if those students are saying bad things about you?” A 6-point Likert rating system is used (1 = strongly disagree, 6 = strongly agree). Rejection sensitivity increases as the score rises. In this study Cronbach’s alpha was .88.

We utilized the depression subscale of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21 (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995), which was revised into Chinese by Gong et al. (2010). It comprises seven items, such as “I feel that I don’t have anything to look forward to in the near future.” Items are rated on a 4-point Likert scale (0 = totally disagree, 3 = totally agree). In this study Cronbach’s alpha was .86.

We employed SPSS 26.0 to conduct a descriptive analysis to summarize and present the main characteristics of the data, a correlation analysis to explore the relationships between the variables, and a reliability analysis to assess the consistency and stability of the measurement scales. We also used Model 6 of the PROCESS 3.4.1 (Hayes, 2018) macro for SPSS to test the hypothesized model.

We employed Harman’s single-factor test to check for common method bias. A factor analysis revealed that the combined amount of variance explained by the six extracted factors was 60.21%, with the first factor accounting for 23.19% of the variance. This is below the threshold of 40%; thus, it can be concluded that there was no prominent common method bias within the study (Podsakoff et al., 2003).

Table 1 shows the means and standard deviations of each variable, as well as the correlationship between pairs of variables and their significance levels. There were significant positive pairwise correlations among harsh parenting, NSSI, rejection sensitivity, and depression.

Figure 1 and Table 2 show the path coefficients of the serial mediation model and specific indirect effects, and the 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the serial mediation model, respectively. The 95% CIs (5,000 bootstrapped resamples) excluded zero, indicating significance; thus, rejection sensitivity and depression individually and serially mediated the relationship between harsh parenting and NSSI. The significant positive correlation between NSSI and harsh parenting, and the significant mediating roles played by rejection sensitivity and depression supported Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3.

The serial mediation model shows that exposure to harsh parenting was linked to heightened cognitive bias toward social exclusion events, subsequently increasing rejection sensitivity. This elevated rejection sensitivity then contributed to depression when adolescents were faced with negative experiences, ultimately leading to NSSI, which supported Hypothesis 4.

The results in our study revealed that harsh parenting positively and significantly predicted NSSI behavior. Furthermore, rejection sensitivity and depression had independent and serial mediating effects on this relationship. These results are consistent with previous research (Gu et al., 2023; J. Liu et al., 2021). Studies applying family systems theory (Cox & Paley, 1997) and general strain theory (Agnew, 1992) have consistently shown that prolonged exposure to negative family environments, such as harsh parenting, can lead to adverse emotional experiences (Cole et al., 2014). As a result, adolescents adopt NSSI as an inappropriate coping tool to mitigate the negative emotional consequences of harsh parenting behaviors. Consistent with the experiential avoidance model (Chapman et al., 2006), individuals exposed to a harsh parenting environment endure prolonged stress, leading to depressive symptoms. Researchers have also found strong links between parental criticism, punishment, and adolescent depression (Pineda et al., 2007). In addition, our results validated the NSSI four-function model (Nock, 2009), which posits that the generation of NSSI behavior is influenced by factors (e.g., family conflicts) that affect an individual’s socialized behavior (emotion regulation, interpersonal communication). In this study we found that harsh parenting can increase the NSSI behavior of adolescents and may increase the frequency of their NSSI behavior by exacerbating their rejection sensitivity and depression.

 

Additionally, we found a novel sequential mediation effect that, to our knowledge, has not previously been demonstrated in the literature. Exposure to harsh parenting was linked to heightened cognitive bias toward social exclusion events, subsequently increasing rejection sensitivity. This elevated rejection sensitivity then contributed to depression when adolescents were faced with negative experiences, ultimately leading to NSSI. This pattern may be attributed to the fact that adolescents raised by abusive parents often experience physical violence but are emotionally neglected. In line with the rejection sensitivity model, adolescents who encounter harsh parenting, as a kind of rejection, early in their life can form cognitive biases related to interpersonal relationship development during adolescence, thereby fostering negative emotions and subsequent NSSI behaviors (Downey & Feldman, 1996). Consequently, prolonged exposure to harsh parenting may increase adolescents’ rejection sensitivity, which will subsequently heighten their depressive emotions and ultimately lead to an increase in NSSI. Our findings also supported the path of interpersonal negative reinforcement in the four-function model of NSSI, which indicates that NSSI behavior emerges to escape aversive social relationships. In our study harsh parenting and rejection sensitivity involving interpersonal rejection generated during social interactions led to depressive emotions in individuals, which, in turn, led to the emergence of NSSI behavior.

Previous research has consistently demonstrated a negative predictive effect of positive parenting styles on NSSI, indicating that parental emotional warmth and understanding are inversely related to NSSI (Gu et al., 2023). Therefore, fostering a supportive family environment and employing effective parental rearing strategies constitute great practical significance for facilitating the healthy development of adolescents, and in reducing both internal and external difficulties the adolescents might encounter. Furthermore, if individuals have experienced harsh parenting, this could potentially increase their recognition of cues related to neglect and rejection, which will increase their rejection sensitivity and depressive mood during interpersonal communication, thereby increasing their likelihood of engaging in NSSI. To effectively address this issue, staff at schools should implement collaborative team activities aimed at fostering positive peer relationships, minimizing social exclusion, and offering emotion-management courses for the alleviation of students’ apprehension about interpersonal communication and for prevention of self-harm behavior.

This study has some limitations. First, the adoption of a cross-sectional design in this investigation prevented the exploration of how harsh parenting influences rejection sensitivity, depression, and NSSI behavior over time. Future studies could utilize multiple-time-point data to examine the model we proposed. Additionally, we focused on two negative factors, namely rejection sensitivity and depression, as the mediating mechanisms. Although reducing rejection sensitivity and depression levels can potentially decrease self-harm behavior among adolescents, it is of great significance to recognize that, once these conditions have emerged, they will persistently affect such behaviors. Hence, future studies could explore protective factors, with the ultimate objective of preventing or mitigating NSSI among adolescents.

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