The internet brings convenience to college students, but because of its anonymity, fast spread, and uncontrollability, it also facilitates frequent occurrences of cyberbullying, thus undermining individuals’ well-being and bringing risk factors to a healthy society (Lam et al., 2022). Cyberbullying is defined as using electronic forms of contact to repeatedly and intentionally harm victims who cannot defend themselves. This type of bullying includes various behaviors, such as harassment, denigration, masquerading, flaming, and cyberstalking (Smith, 2015). With the popularity of the internet, cyberbullying has become a global phenomenon and an increasingly prominent social issue (Xu & Zheng, 2022). In December 2023 the number of internet users in China reached 1.09 billion, with almost one third of adolescents and young adults having experienced cyberviolence, and a higher prevalence being reported among females than males (China Internet Network Information Center, 2024).

 

Because the objective of preschool education students is to work with children, their mental and behavioral health not only affects themselves but will also influence the lifelong development of the children whom they teach. Given the threat of perpetration of cyberbullying among college students (Xu & Zheng, 2022), it is essential to identify the potential influencing factors. Incorporating cumulative risk theory (Blair & Ursache, 2011), individuals may face a greater likelihood of negative outcomes when they are simultaneously exposed to multiple risk factors, rather than just one. For example, sustained and repeated experiencing of at least one kind of childhood trauma could be significantly and positively related to individuals’ cyberbullying (e.g., Wu et al., 2024). Moreover, grounding our research in the general aggression model (Robinson & Wilkowski, 2010) and the risk-protective model of resilience (Garmezy et al., 1984), in this study we focused on trait anger as a mediator and resilience as a moderator of the association between childhood maltreatment and cyberbullying.

Childhood maltreatment is the abuse and neglect that occurs to children under 18 years of age (World Health Organization, 2024). It includes physical and emotional abuse/neglect, and sexual abuse. Previous theoretical and experimental evidence has demonstrated that childhood maltreatment could lead to severe and long-lasting negative outcomes, such as mental health problems, aggressive behavior, and delinquency (see, e.g., Baldwin et al., 2023). More importantly, there could be a significant relationship between childhood maltreatment and adolescent cyberbullying (Li et al., 2024). Testing of the cycle of violence hypothesis showed that victims of abuse in early childhood are at greater risk of violence in adolescence and early adulthood than are their peers, and are more likely to bully their peers (Wright et al., 2019). Choi et al. (2023) employed multivariate regression analysis to reveal that female adolescents highly exposed to maltreatment and family dysfunction during childhood were more at risk of online sexual victimization than were those with less exposure to childhood maltreatment. Moreover, researchers have reported finding that childhood maltreatment is a powerful predictor for college students’ cyberbullying (Wang & Wang, 2024; Ying & Han, 2024). Experiencing emotional abuse during childhood may later cause problematic social media use, which increases cyberbullying perpetration (Xu & Zheng, 2022). Even witnessing scenes of verbal or physical violence in the family has direct negative effects on online aggression and bullying in cyberspace (Wu et al., 2024). Therefore, our aim in this study was to extend the findings of existing research to Chinese preschool education students, by examining whether and how childhood maltreatment would influence cyberbullying among this group.

Trait anger is a personality construct that refers to stable individual differences in the propensity to feel anger in daily life (Owen, 2011). As a relatively stable emotional state, anger has been positively linked with cyberbullying (Wang et al., 2017). According to the general aggression model, individuals with an angry personality usually respond more aggressively and more frequently than others do to various stimuli, and are more likely to carry out verbal or nonverbal attacks on others through abuse, deception, cursing, intimidation, and leaking other people’s information (Robinson & Wilkowski, 2010; Zhu et al., 2021). Moreover, Win et al. (2021) reported that early childhood trauma experiences significantly predicted trait anger expression in adulthood. Adult survivors of childhood maltreatment easily become irritable and have a more hostile attitude about the external environment than do their peers, which can ultimately cause antisocial actions and reactions, such as committing a crime (Greene et al., 2020). On the basis of these findings, this study explored the potential mediating role of trait anger in the relationship between childhood maltreatment and cyberbullying.

Resilience refers to the ability to bounce back from negative events (Kurniawan et al., 2024; Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004). According to the risk-protective model of resilience (Garmezy et al., 1984), this trait embodies the personal qualities and abilities that enable individuals to protect themselves and thrive in the face of adversity. Risks, such as childhood maltreatment, may create pressure or adversity, whereas resilience provides protective factors that determine whether the risk leads to a negative outcome, such as cyberbullying. In this regard, Yubero et al. (2023) demonstrated that resilience plays a buffering role in coping with and preventing the negative impacts of catastrophic events. Individuals with high, compared to low, levels of resilience are more likely to find positive meaning in negative circumstances (Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004; Zhang et al., 2024). Lin et al. (2022) showed that the resilience of survivors of abuse protected them against cyberbullying victimization, promoting their long-term positive mental health and well-being in later life. Therefore, we anticipated that resilience may important moderate the relationship between childhood maltreatment and cyberbullying.

Applying the theory of cumulative risk (Blair & Ursache, 2011) and the risk-protective model of resilience (Garmezy et al., 1984; Zhang et al., 2024), we explored the mechanism of the relationships among childhood maltreatment, trait anger, resilience, and cyberbullying (see Figure 1). Our specific hypotheses were as follows:

Hypothesis 1: Childhood maltreatment will positively influence cyberbullying.

Hypothesis 2: Trait anger will play a mediating role between childhood maltreatment and cyberbullying.

Hypothesis 3: Resilience will moderate the relationship between childhood maltreatment and cyberbullying.

The current study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee at Nanjing Xiaozhuang University. Chinese preschool education college students were randomly recruited through Sojump (Wenjuanxing in China) to participate on a voluntary basis. We obtained informed consent from all participants. Among the completed surveys we received, 263 contained valid data, including 16 (6.1%) from male students and 247 (93.9%) from female students (M = 19.46, SD = 1.39, range = 17–23). Essential support was provided to participants for whom negative reactions were triggered by being asked directly about traumatic events in their life (e.g., sexual abuse). For example, there was an opt-out option in our survey, allowing respondents to decline to answer any item that made them feel uncomfortable.

We assessed childhood maltreatment with the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (Rodman et al., 2019). Peng et al. (2023) evaluated this questionnaire and reported good reliability and validity in the Chinese context. The questionnaire has five subscales with 28 self-reported items. There are five items in each of the subscales and three attention-check items. Sample items for each subscale are “Called stupid, lazy, or ugly” (emotional abuse), “Felt loved” (emotional neglect), “Had someone to take me to the doctor if I needed it” (physical neglect), “Punished with belt, board, cord, or another hard object” (physical abuse), and “Threatened to hurt me unless I did something sexual with them” (sexual abuse). Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale from 1 = never true to 5 = very often true. After reverse scoring several items, total scores are calculated. The higher the total score, the higher the degree of childhood maltreatment the participant suffered. In this study Cronbach’s alpha was .85.

The Revised Cyber Bullying Inventory (Topcu & Erdur-Baker, 2010) consists of two parallel forms: one for cyberbullying and one for cybervictimization. We used the 16-item cyberbullying form, for which the Chinese version has shown good validity and reliability (Xu & Zheng, 2022). Sample items are “While on the internet, I have engaged in threatening someone” and “While on the internet, I have engaged in insulting someone.” Respondents rate each item on a 4-point Likert-type scale (1 = has never happened to me, 2 = has happened once or twice, 3 = has happened 3–5 times, 4 = has happened more than five times). The higher the total score, the higher the level of involvement in cyberbullying. In this study Cronbach’s alpha was .90.

 

We used the Trait Anger Scale (Spielberger, 2010), which originated from the State–Trait Anger Expression Inventory. This measure consists of 10 items across two dimensions: angry temperament (six items, e.g., “I am a hot-headed person”) and angry reaction (four items, e.g., “I have a fiery temper”). All items are rated on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 4 = strongly agree. A higher score for trait anger indicates a general personality trait that predisposes the individual to frequent irritation or hostility. Leng et al. (2022) examined a Chinese version of the Trait Anger Scale; and found the reliability and validity were good. In this study Cronbach’s alpha was .88.

We used the Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale (Connor & Davidson, 2003) because of its good reliability in the Chinese context (Deng et al., 2025). The scale comprises 25 items, such as “I like challenges” and “I prefer to take the lead in problem solving.” Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Higher total scores reflect stronger resilience. In this study Cronbach’s alpha was .96.

We used SPSS 26.0 to analyze descriptive statistics and calculate Pearson correlation coefficients. Version 3.2 of the PROCESS macro (Hayes, 2018) was used to test whether trait anger played a mediating role between childhood maltreatment and cyberbullying, as well as the moderating role of resilience in these relationships.

We tested for common method bias using Harman’s single-factor test. The results showed that there were 16 factors with an eigenvalue greater than 1, and the amount of variance explained by the first factor was 21.02%, indicating common method bias was not a serious concern in this study. Therefore, further analysis could be conducted.

As shown in Table 1, childhood maltreatment was positively associated with cyberbullying, trait anger, and resilience. There was also a positive relationship between trait anger and cyberbullying, and a negative relationship between trait anger and resilience. These significant results supported the validity of building the moderated mediation analysis in the next step.

First, we used Model 4 of the PROCESS macro (Hayes, 2018) in SPSS 26.0 to explore whether trait anger played a mediating role between childhood maltreatment and cyberbullying. Childhood maltreatment served as the independent variable, cyberbullying as the dependent variable, trait anger as the mediating variable, and we controlled for gender and age as covariates. Table 2 shows the total and direct effect of childhood maltreatment on cyberbullying, supporting Hypothesis 1. The 95% confidence interval for the indirect effect excluded zero, indicating trait anger acted as a mediator between childhood maltreatment and cyberbullying. Thus, Hypothesis 2 was supported.

 

Second, we used Model 5 of the PROCESS macro to examine the moderating effect of resilience (Hayes, 2018). Results in Table 2 show that the interaction term of childhood maltreatment and resilience was significant, supporting Hypothesis 3. That is, resilience negatively moderated the relationship between childhood maltreatment and cyberbullying.

We conducted a simple slope test to examine how resilience moderated the relationship between childhood maltreatment and cyberbullying. As shown in Figure 2, at higher levels of resilience, the impact of childhood maltreatment on cyberbullying was not significant, β_{simple slope} = .13, t = 1.25, p > .05. At lower levels of resilience, childhood maltreatment significantly influenced cyberbullying, β_{simple slope} = .36, t = 6.81, p < .05. Results from the simple slope test supported our third hypothesis: Resilience negatively moderated the relationship between childhood maltreatment and cyberbullying. Specifically, compared to higher levels of resilience, lower levels of resilience served to intensify the positive relationship between childhood maltreatment and cyberbullying.

Empirical evidence in this study revealed a direct positive link between childhood maltreatment and cyberbullying among Chinese preschool education students. Consistent with prior studies (e.g., Choi et al., 2023; Li et al., 2024), childhood maltreatment emerged as a predictive factor that significantly influenced adolescents’ engagement in cyberbullying. This finding supported the cycle of violence hypothesis (Wright et al., 2019), which indicates that children who live for a long time in a family where there is violence inherit the tendency to use violent ways to solve problems. For instance, maltreated children exhibit poorer emotional understanding than their counterparts with stronger emotional understanding, preventing these children from establishing good relationships and increasing their vulnerability to becoming involved in cyberbullying (Li et al., 2024). To prevent childhood maltreatment, parents should understand the impact of their emotions and behaviors on their children, and learn and use positive parenting techniques, such as nonviolent communication, listening, and respect (Ying & Han, 2024). Building high-quality parent–child relationships is a crucial factor in reducing cyberbullying.

Childhood maltreatment also indirectly influenced the cyberbullying behavior of preschool education students through the mediator of trait anger. Even though several scholars have indicated that trait anger mediates the predictive effect of childhood trauma on adulthood anxiety, depression, and alcohol-use disorders (see, e.g., Win et al., 2021), much less is known about whether trait anger serves as an underlying mechanism mediating the relationship between childhood maltreatment and cyberbullying. Consistent with the general aggression model (Robinson & Wilkowski, 2010), individuals who have been maltreated during childhood are more likely to experience dispositional anger via behavioral modeling of hostility reinforced by primary caregivers who have emotion-regulation deficits. That is, negative childhood experiences can increase the tendency toward hostile attribution, making individuals indulge in anger, which then promotes engagement in cyberbullying (Li et al., 2024).

 

Specific to the first stage of our mediation model, which showed that childhood maltreatment positively predicted trait anger, previous research has also indicated that individuals who suffered abuse or neglect during their early childhood may be unable to control their emotions, and may become angry in response to an evoked stimulus (Win et al. 2021). For the second stage of our mediation process, showing that trait anger increased cyberbullying, the result extends previous research by indicating that trait anger could make people interpret others’ intentions as being threatening in ambiguous contexts, which, in turn, increases the possibility or frequency of their hurting others in social interactions (Greene et al., 2020). 

We found that resilience had a negative moderating effect on the relationship between childhood maltreatment and cyberbullying. Consistent with prior research (Lin et al., 2022; Yubero et al., 2023), as a buffering factor, resilience moderated the negative effect of family parenting risks on adolescent outcomes—such as neglect and abuse, hostility, or criticism in the relationship between parents and children—which can create a wide range of chronic stressors and adversities within the family environment that can disrupt healthy child development (e.g., Yubero et al., 2023). The negative influence of childhood maltreatment on cyberbullying increased significantly among individuals with lower (vs. higher) levels of resilience. 

 

However, we found that for individuals who had been abused in childhood, higher levels of resilience did not change the strong relationship between childhood abuse and cyberbullying. This finding is meaningful and similar to that reported by Zhang et al. (2024), who found that a higher level of physical victimization was correlated with lower life satisfaction among adolescents with weak resilience, but not among those with strong resilience. This indicates that there could be other unobserved factors that are positively related to childhood maltreatment and its negative impacts on cyberbullying. For example, one factor might be lack of reappraisal in the cognition process linked with childhood emotional neglect (Holman & Jignea, 2023), thus decreasing the buffering effect of resilience.

The key to reducing childhood abuse and neglect and its negative effects is starting from the beginning, that is, with the family system, as the primary source of childhood maltreatment and its negative consequences, such as adolescent cyberbullying (Younas & Morrison Gutman, 2023). On the basis of cumulative risk theory, individuals, family, community, government, educational institutions, and emergency sociopsychological services should cooperate to reduce children’s exposure to multiple risk factors of maltreatment in different environments at the level of the individual, the family, the community, and societal norms (Blair & Ursache, 2011). Managers and owners of social media sites should also take responsibility to raise awareness of the harms of childhood maltreatment, and implement safeguards that reduce cyberbullying and protect children’s lifelong health and well-being. Anticyberbullying strategies should include effectively regulating anger in time to avoid harm. Individuals need to learn to control and express stressed emotions in a suitable way instead of cyberbullying others.

 

We also recommend that social workers and psychological consultants pay more attention to identifying and preventing cyberbullying of college students, especially those with little psychological resilience. For example, postcrisis psychological assistance (e.g., psychological capital) should be provided to people who have been cyberbullied and/or who are cyberbullies (Güçlü-Aydogan et al., 2025). For those who have survived childhood maltreatment, staff of mental health agencies in colleges should pay attention to detecting college students’ psychological and behavioral problems and enhancing their well-being. In addition, training programs for preschool education students who are preparing for preschool teaching should be designed to strengthen students’ abilities and skills for guiding family education.

 

To intervene in cyberbullying, staff of colleges and educational agencies should provide multiple strategies to regulate trait anger and increase the likelihood of controlling anger and/or developing positive outlets for anger for a healthier personality. For example, Langerian cognitive mindfulness training may be a specific way to regulate the emotion of anger. As a result of this training, individuals may replace anger-inducing thoughts with new, flexible, and creative thinking (Maymin & Langer, 2021). Therefore, staff in the Chinese Civil Affairs Department and people in communities should give more care and love to survivors of childhood maltreatment who have lower levels of resilience. Deng et al. (2025) reported that physical exercise could be emphasized as a way to improve psychological resilience. In addition, practicing cognitive mindfulness and promoting caring and empathy would be conducive to increasing college students’ resilience.

The current study has several limitations. First, the self-reported scales may have elicited biased responses from the participants owing to social desirability effects. Thus, researchers could use a combination of techniques including experimental methods, implicit association tests, and large language models for further exploration. For example, using large language models to detect college students’ cyberbullying would be more precise, and personalized interventions could be recommended by the algorithms (Ogunleye & Dharmaraj, 2023). In addition, researchers could conduct longitudinal experiments to track cyberbullied individuals and assess their well-being over time. Second, in light of cumulative risk theory, it is crucial to explore other factors and integrate more comprehensive strategies in developing a system for prevention of and intervention in cyberbullying across different domains, such as social welfare, and mental and physical health. Finally, further studies  could be conducted to consider the influence of confounding variables and explore more precisely the association between childhood maltreatment and cyberbullying.

In conclusion, we have shed light on how to decrease the negative effects of childhood maltreatment and trait anger on cyberbullying, as well as promoting resilience among survivors of childhood maltreatment who are training as preschool education students in China. These findings are meaningful and broaden the application of previous theories, enhancing the importance of building democratic, civilized, harmonious, and safe interpersonal relationships in the educational atmosphere of the process of training young adults for preschool teaching.

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