Building sustainable volunteer engagement: Psychological determinants and behavioral outcomes in mega sport events

Seongjin Yoo; Youngjin Hur; Yong Jae  Ko; Hyejin Bang; Taeho Kim

doi:10.2224/sbp.15144

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Published: Feb 9, 2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.15144

Issue: Vol. 54 No. 2 (2026)

Keywords:

volunteer engagement, volunteer behavior, mega sport event, psychological determinants, behavioral outcomes

Article Highlights

We applied the affective, behavioral, and cognitive model of attitude to examine the psychological drivers of volunteer engagement at mega sport events.
Pride and person–task fit significantly predicted volunteer satisfaction and commitment.
Commitment was a key mediator driving all examined forms of behavioral engagement, comprising word-of-mouth, electronic word-of-mouth, cooperation, and intention to continue volunteering.

Seongjin Yoo

Department of Sport Management, SUNY Cortland

Youngjin Hur

Department of Physical Education, Konkuk University

Yong Jae Ko

Department of Sport Management, University of Florida

Hyejin Bang

Department of Counseling, Recreation, and School Psychology, Florida International University

Taeho Kim

Department of Leadership, School Counseling & Sport Management, University of North Florida

Cite this article: Yoo, S., Hur, Y., Ko, Y. J., Bang, H., & Kim, T. (2026). Building sustainable volunteer engagement: Psychological determinants and behavioral outcomes in mega sport events. Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal, 54(2), e15144.

Abstract

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The engagement of volunteers is essential for successfully operating a mega sport event (MSE). This study applied the affective, behavioral, and cognitive model of attitude to advance theoretical understanding of how attitudinal components collectively shape volunteer behavior in MSEs. We conducted face-to-face surveys with 271 volunteers recruited during the 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympic Games. Structural equation modeling revealed that pride and person–task fit acted as significant predictors of satisfaction, while also directly predicting commitment. Further, commitment, but not satisfaction, served as a key mediator leading to all examined behavioral outcomes, comprising word-of-mouth, electronic word-of-mouth, cooperation, and intention to continue volunteering. These findings suggest that recruiters should focus on fostering volunteers’ sense of pride in their contributions and enhancing person–task fit. Strategies aimed at strengthening commitment are particularly crucial for sustaining long-term volunteer engagement.

Volunteers are essential for the operational success of a mega sport events (MSE). Within the dynamic environment of MSEs, especially during the Olympic Games, volunteers gain unique experiences through public recognition and structured event operations (Yoo et al., 2023). These experiences influence not only volunteer satisfaction and involvement (Doherty, 2009) but also contribute to long-term community development and economic advantages (Bang et al., 2022).

In response to such demand, prior research has examined the reasons for volunteers’ involvement in sporting events and the types of support they expect to receive (Allen & Bartle, 2014; Bang & Ross, 2009; Kim et al., 2010). However, there is a lack of theoretical understanding of how affective, cognitive, and behavioral factors collectively shape volunteer engagement. Understanding these three components is crucial because human responses typically involve emotional reactions, thought processes, and behavioral tendencies that work together to influence sustained engagement (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). This need for understanding becomes particularly important in MSE volunteering, where tasks are often simple, repetitive, and limited in scope, which can potentially lead to decreased interest and motivation (Yoo et al., 2023).

To address this gap in the literature, we employed the affective, behavioral, and cognitive (ABC) model of attitude to examine the factors that shape volunteer engagement. Pride was designated as an affective factor, person–task fit as a cognitive component, and volunteer experience and sports involvement were the behavioral factors included in our framework. The ABC model provides a particularly suitable framework for understanding volunteer engagement in MSEs.

Volunteer Engagement

Building on previous conceptualizations of engagement (Macey & Schneider, 2008; Rich et al., 2010), we differentiated volunteer engagement into psychological and behavioral dimensions. Psychological engagement was defined as “a positive, fulfilling, and work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption” (Schaufeli et al., 2002, p. 465), reflecting a pervasive cognitive–affective state manifested through job involvement and commitment (Macey & Schneider, 2008). In contrast, behavioral engagement encompasses actions that extend beyond typical role requirements, focusing on individuals’ task-related manifestations toward an organization (Macey & Schneider, 2008). On the basis of this framework, our study examined psychological engagement through affective commitment and behavioral engagement through specific actions such as word-of-mouth and electronic word-of-mouth communication, cooperation, and intention to continue volunteering.

Word-of-mouth (WOM) and electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) are informal communication channels through which volunteers share their experiences and evaluations (Lee et al., 2016). This type of subjective and evaluative information serves as an effective promotional tool for decision making, particularly in sport event volunteering contexts, which are inherently intangible and experiential (Bang et al., 2022). While traditional WOM operates through close acquaintances, eWOM extends this influence to a broader, global audience through social networking sites, making both forms beneficial for organizational sustainability. Cooperation, defined as “coordinated actions taken by alliance partners to achieve desirable mutual or singular outcomes” (Anderson & Narus, 1990, p. 45), reflects volunteers’ willingness to work toward common goals. Such cooperative behavior enhances service quality perception and team dynamics within the organization. Additionally, volunteers’ future intentions are vital to the sustainable growth of sporting events, as maintaining a reliable volunteer pool is essential for successful event operations (Yoo et al., 2023).

Determinants of Volunteer Engagement

According to the ABC model of attitudes (Breckler, 1984), an individual’s attitude toward an object is formed based on affective, behavioral, and cognitive responses. The three closely interconnected attitudinal components vary significantly among individuals, uniquely shaping each person’s actions across different contexts (Haddock & Maio, 2019). The ABC model is particularly relevant in MSE contexts as it provides insights into how these elements interact simultaneously to sustain volunteer engagement. This framework helps explain how volunteers can maintain behavioral engagement despite the repetitive tasks that often lead to decreased interest and potential burnout in MSE environments (Yoo et al., 2023). On the basis of an extensive literature review, we carefully selected salient affective, behavioral, and cognitive factors and examined how they predicted volunteer engagement.

Pride

Pride refers to an individual’s positive affective response derived from being recognizing by others for their meaningful contributions, which enhances their self-concept and reinforces their psychological attachment to the organization (Septianto et al., 2018). According to broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 2001), positive emotions such as pride expand individuals’ cognitive and psychological resources, which ultimately affect their overall evaluation of experiences, such as satisfaction. In this way, pride serves as a powerful driver that promotes individuals to align their actions with organizational goals, encouraging them to engage in behaviors that support organizational success (Wu et al., 2023). Within the MSE context, this theoretical framework accords with research showing that pride strengthens volunteers’ self-concept and commitment to their role, ultimately leading to long-term engagement (Kim et al., 2010). Therefore, we proposed the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1a: Pride will positively predict satisfaction.

Hypothesis 1b: Pride will positively predict commitment.

Person–Task Fit

Person–task fit refers to the perceived congruence between volunteers’ competencies and their assigned tasks (Kim et al., 2007). Research has shown that volunteers experience a strong sense of person–task fit when their personal skills effectively fulfill organizational service needs, thereby enhancing the perceived value and quality of their contributions (Englert et al., 2020). Self-determination theory suggests that satisfying the basic psychological need for competence increases intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). When volunteers feel competent in their assigned tasks, they experience greater confidence and pleasure, leading to enhanced empowerment and satisfaction (Englert et al., 2020). Studies specifically focused on volunteer contexts have found that good person–task fit is essential for continued engagement and productivity (Englert et al., 2020; Kim et al., 2007). Therefore, we proposed the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 2a: Volunteers’ person–task fit will positively predict their satisfaction.

Hypothesis 2b: Volunteers’ person–task fit will positively predict their commitment.

Volunteer Experience and Sport Involvement

Previous volunteer experience has been found to significantly influence volunteer decisions and engagement levels (Khoo & Engelhorn, 2011). Volunteers with prior experience typically exhibit higher satisfaction and better recognize the significance of their roles, as their familiarity with the tasks and expectations enhances their overall engagement (Ferreira et al., 2016). Similarly, sports involvement, defined as volunteers’ perceived interest in and personal importance placed on sports has been found to significantly influence volunteer engagement (Bang & Ross, 2009). According to Funk and James's (2001) psychological continuum model, higher (vs. lower) personal relevance of sports leads to greater psychological investment in sport-related activities.

In the context of volunteering, individuals with high sport involvement perceive volunteering at sport events as an opportunity to express their values and interests (Bang & Ross, 2009; Funk & James, 2001). These volunteers typically derive greater satisfaction from contributing to sport events and form deeper psychological connections to their volunteer experiences, resulting in enhanced engagement and commitment (Bang & Ross, 2009; Funk & James, 2001). Therefore, we proposed the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 3a: Volunteer experience will positively predict satisfaction.

Hypothesis 3b: Volunteer experience will positively predict commitment.

Hypothesis 4a: Sport involvement will positively predict satisfaction.

Hypothesis 4b: Sport involvement will positively predict commitment.

Satisfaction and Commitment

Prior research has established satisfaction with volunteer experiences and organizational commitment as critical psychological mechanisms linking volunteer motivations to behavioral outcomes (Bang & Ross, 2009; Funk et al., 2011). Volunteer job satisfaction results from a comparison between initial expectations and perceived performance (Ferreira et al., 2016), and significantly influences volunteers’ behavioral engagement (Bang & Ross, 2009; Doherty, 2009). When volunteers perceive their needs and expectations are met through their experiences, they view their engagement as a valuable exchange (Bang & Ross, 2009), leading to increased service investment (Bang & Ross, 2009), positive organizational attitudes (Funk et al., 2011), and sustained participation (Doherty, 2009).

Affective commitment is defined as an employee’s emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in the organization (Meyer & Allen, 1991). It reflects their high commitment and dedication to the organization; hence, this emotional connection beneficially predicts organizational outcomes, such as a supportive attitude toward the organization (Jernigan et al., 2002). According to attitude–behavior consistency theory (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977), individuals tend to behave in ways that reflect their underlying attitude. Volunteers with strong affective commitment represent their emotional attitude toward the organizations, and they are likely to display positive behaviors that align with these attitudes (Jernigan et al., 2002; Meyer & Allen, 1997). This theoretical perspective explains why committed volunteers demonstrate enhanced productivity (Meyer & Allen, 1997), supportive organizational attitudes, and greater willingness to accept responsibility (Jernigan et al., 2002). Zhang et al. (2017) further demonstrated that commitment not only promotes immediate participation but also ensures long-term engagement. Understanding this mediating role of satisfaction and commitment is particularly critical in MSE contexts, where emotional and behavioral components are tightly linked (Dickson et al., 2015). By examining these mediating mechanisms, we can better explain how initial determinants translate into sustained behavioral engagement despite the challenging nature of repetitive tasks in MSEs.

The positive relationship between satisfaction and commitment has been documented across various organizational contexts (Feinstein & Vondrasek, 2006). As commitment reflects an emotional connection to organizational goals and values (Jernigan et al., 2002), satisfied volunteers may be more likely to develop stronger organizational commitment. Thus, we proposed the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 5: Volunteer satisfaction will positively predict commitment.

Hypothesis 6: Volunteer satisfaction will positively predict behavioral engagement (word-of-mouth, electronic word-of-mouth, cooperation, and intention to continue volunteering).

Hypothesis 7: Volunteer commitment will positively predict behavioral engagement (word-of-mouth, electronic word-of-mouth, cooperation, and intention to continue volunteering).

Method

Participants and Procedure

We surveyed volunteers who participated in the 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympic Games, collecting data using simple random sampling (Sharma, 2017) to ensure equal-opportunity selection. We focused on six venues (i.e., Alpensia Olympic Park, Olympic Sliding Centre, Phoenix Snow Park, Jeongseon Alpine Centre, Gangneung Curling Centre, and Gangneung Hockey Centre) during February 9–25, 2018. Twelve trained assistants went to these venues during the events to collect responses from random volunteers. Prior to participation, volunteers were informed about the study’s purpose and voluntary nature, and given assurance of the anonymity of their responses. We provided no monetary compensation for participation.

Among 310 collected surveys, we excluded 39 due to incomplete responses, yielding a final sample of 271 (87.4%) respondents. The sample comprised 165 (61%) women and 106 (39%) men, with the age distribution as follows: six (2.2%) aged 19 years and under, 223 (82.3%) aged 20–29 years, 14 (5.2%) aged 30–39 years, five (1.8%) aged 40–49 years, and 23 (8.5%) aged 50–59 years. Most participants (n = 216, 79.7%) volunteered only for the Olympics, while 23 (20.3%) also served during the Paralympic Games, which immediately followed the Olympics.

Measures

All survey items were originally developed in English, so we translated them into English. All authors are native Korean speakers and hold master’s and doctoral degrees in sport management from North American institutions. We used a back-translation procedure to ensure semantic accuracy. Items are listed in the table below.

Pride

We measured pride by adopting two items from Decrop and Derbaix’s (2010) three-item scale, slightly modifying the wording to reflect the Olympic volunteer context. Items were measured using a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (very much so).

Person–Task Fit

We measured person–task fit by adopting two items from Kim et al.’s (2007) three-item scale. We slightly modified the wording to reflect the Olympic volunteer context. Items were measured using a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (very much so).

Volunteer Experience

We measured volunteer experience with one item adapted from Ferreira et al. (2016) to fit the Olympic volunteer context. It was rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (very much so).

Sport Involvement

We measured sport satisfaction by adapting three items from Wiley et al.’s (2000) 12-item scale. We slightly modified the selected items to fit our research context. The items were measured using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (very much so).

Satisfaction

We measured satisfaction with a single item from Khoo and Engelhorn (2011), with responses rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).

Affective Commitment

We measured commitment with a single item from McGee and Ford (1987), measured on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).

The use of single-item measures for satisfaction and commitment is supported by previous research showing their effectiveness for assessing psychological constructs that are sufficiently narrow and unambiguous (Hoeppner et al., 2011). Such measures can reduce common method variance while maintaining measurement validity (Sarstedt & Wilczynski, 2009).

Behavioral Engagement

We assessed behavioral engagement through four single-item measures rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (very much so). The four items measured eWOM, WOM, cooperation, and intention to continue volunteering. This approach aligns with research suggesting that single-item measures can effectively predict future behavioral outcomes (Hoeppner et al., 2011).

Results

Confirmatory Factor Analysis

We used SPSS 26.0 for calculating descriptive statistics and Amos 26.0 for confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling. The confirmatory factor analysis results demonstrated an acceptable model fit, χ² = 89.077, df = 39, χ²/df = 2.284, comparative fit index = .979, root-mean-square error of approximation = .069, standardized root-mean-square residual = .025 (Hair et al., 2018). All standardized factor loadings were significant (< .50), ranging from .78 to .94 (p < .001). Cronbach’s alpha (range = .88–.93), average variance extracted (range = .72–.86), and composite reliability (range = .89–.93) values confirmed convergent validity and reliability (Hair et al., 2018; Kline, 2015). See Table 1 for detailed results.

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics, Factor Loadings, and Reliability and Validity for Study Variables

Note. Standardized factor loadings are presented. AVE = average variance extracted; CR = composite reliability; SNS = social networking services (e.g., Facebook or Instagram).

All squared correlations between constructs were smaller than the square roots of the average variance extracted values (see Table 2); thus, the discriminant validity of the measurement scales was established (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

Table 2. Construct Intercorrelations

Note. Square roots of average variance extracted are presented on the diagonal. AVE = average variance extracted.

Structural Equation Modeling

The structural model demonstrated a good fit to the data, χ² = 146.925, df = 60, χ²/df = 2.449, comparative fit index = .963, root-mean-square error of approximation = .073, standardized root-mean-square residual = .038. Among the four exogenous constructs, pride, β = .54, p < .001, and person–task fit, β = .23, p < .001, significantly predicted satisfaction, while volunteer experience, β = .02, ns, and sport involvement, β = –.05, ns, did not significantly predict satisfaction. Pride, β = .45, p < .001, person–task fit, β = .32, p < .001, and volunteer experience, β = .16, p < .001, showed significant relationships with commitment, whereas sport involvement did not, β = .02, ns. Finally, satisfaction significantly predicted commitment, β = .25, p < .01. Thus, Hypotheses 1a, 1b, 2a, 2b, 3b, and 5 were supported, while Hypotheses 3a, 4a, and 4b were not supported.

A bootstrapping analysis (5,000 resamples; Preacher & Hayes, 2008) revealed that satisfaction partially mediated the relationships between the key determinants and commitment. Specifically, satisfaction significantly mediated the effect of pride on commitment and the effect of person–task fit on commitment (see Table 3). These represent partial mediation effects, as the direct effects of pride and person–task fit on commitment remained significant. In contrast, satisfaction did not mediate the effect of either volunteer experience or sports involvement on commitment.

We also found that commitment fully mediated the effect of satisfaction on behavioral engagement outcomes. Commitment showed significant direct effects on all behavioral outcomes, eWOM: β = .74; WOM: β = .80; cooperation: β = .61; intention to continue: β = .74; ps < .001, thus supporting Hypothesis 7. However, the direct relationships of satisfaction with WOM, β = –.05, cooperation, β = .06, and intention to continue volunteering, β = .05, were not significant. In addition, satisfaction showed a negative relationship with eWOM, β = –.27, p = .004; thus, Hypothesis 6 was not supported. Further mediation analysis revealed that commitment fully mediated the effect of satisfaction on both eWOM and cooperation (see Table 3 and Figure 1). These findings highlight that satisfaction predicted behavioral outcomes solely through commitment, emphasizing the crucial role of commitment as a key mediator of volunteer engagement.

Table 3. Results of Mediating Effect Analysis

Note. CI = confidence interval; LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit; eWOM = electronic word-of-mouth; WOM = word-of-mouth.

Figure 1. Results of Simultaneous Model Testing

Note. Solid lines indicate statistically significant paths; dashed lines indicate nonsignificant paths. eWOM = electronic word of mouth; WOM = word of mouth.

* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.

Discussion

Drawing on the ABC model of attitude, we found that pride and person–task fit significantly predicted volunteer satisfaction and commitment, while volunteer experience was significantly related to commitment. Of note, commitment, but not satisfaction, emerged as a critical mediator leading to the examined behavioral outcomes of word‐of-mouth, electronic word‐of‐mouth cooperation, and intention to continue volunteering.

Theoretical Implications

Determinants of Satisfaction and Commitment

Our findings underscore the importance of pride and person–task fit as key predictors of volunteer satisfaction and commitment, which are critical for sustaining volunteer involvement over time. The significant predictive role of pride in volunteer engagement contributes to broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 2001). According to this theory, the experience of positive emotions broadens people’s momentary thought–action repertories, which, in turn, build their enduring personal resources, including attitudinal and behavioral engagement. Our findings support this framework in the MSE context, demonstrating that volunteers who experienced pride in their contributions exhibited high satisfaction and strong organizational commitment.

Our findings are particularly significant given the nature of MSE volunteer roles, which are often limited in scope and repetitive. In such a task environment, pride emerges as a crucial factor in fostering psychological engagement, reinforcing volunteers’ connection to their role. These results highlight pride’s building effect, showing that pride functions beyond a momentary emotion to become a key driver that strengthens volunteers’ lasting psychological connection to their experience. Thus, our research extends broaden-and-build theory to the MSE volunteering context, emphasizing the role of pride in sustaining volunteer engagement.

Our analysis revealed person–task fit as another key factor predicting both satisfaction and commitment. This finding contributes to self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) by demonstrating the critical role of competence in MSE volunteering contexts. Self-determination theory emphasizes three basic psychological needs—competence, autonomy, and relatedness—as essential drivers for intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). However, our findings revealed that competence in itself serves as a sufficient predictor of satisfaction and commitment, even in MSE environments where volunteer roles are highly structured, tasks are predetermined, and individual autonomy is often limited. Furthermore, our findings suggest that fulfilling competence needs through person–task fit may indirectly support relatedness by fostering a deeper psychological connection between volunteers and the organization. By extending self-determination theory to the MSE volunteer context, our study provides new insights into how psychological needs are prioritized in large-scale, time-bound volunteer settings.

An unexpected finding emerged regarding sports involvement: While experience was positively related to commitment, pre-existing sports involvement did not significantly predict either satisfaction or commitment. This contrasts with previous research suggesting that interest in sports strongly drives volunteering in sport settings (Bang et al., 2022). We attribute this difference to the diverse nature of Olympic volunteer roles, which often extend beyond sports-specific tasks. In the case of volunteering at the Olympics, a wide range of volunteer areas (e.g., customer service, press operations, communications, and technology) makes it difficult for volunteers to bring their own sports-related knowledge and interest to their assigned tasks. Additionally, Olympic volunteers tend to be motivated by the desire for unique experiences, networking opportunities, and social contribution rather than a strong interest in the sporting event itself (Bang et al., 2022; Yoo et al., 2023). This might explain why immediate experiences of pride and person–task fit emerged as stronger predictors of satisfaction and commitment than pre-existing sports involvement. These findings provide important insights into the volunteer engagement process in MSEs, suggesting that distinctive individual characteristics—encompassing varied roles and diverse motivational factors—may create engagement patterns that differ from those seen in other sporting contexts.

Mediating Effect of Satisfaction and Commitment

Our findings revealed complex relationships among satisfaction, commitment, and behavioral engagement in MSE volunteering. Volunteer satisfaction showed a positive relationship with commitment, which supports previous findings (Jernigan et al., 2002). Further, we found that satisfaction served as a mediating mechanism between key predictors (person–task fit, pride) and commitment, expanding job characteristics theory (Hackman & Oldham, 1975) in the volunteer context. This theory postulates that job satisfaction increases when the work environment encourages individuals to display motivation in relation to job characteristics, such as skill variety and task significance. When individuals recognize the value and importance of their work, they experience greater job meaningfulness, which enhances their satisfaction. Our results extend this theoretical framework by demonstrating that pride and person–task fit serve as critical predictors of job satisfaction in volunteer settings, ultimately driving commitment.

We found that volunteer commitment significantly predicted behavioral engagement, including WOM, eWOM, cooperation, and future volunteering intention. This aligns with existing literature emphasizing the role of commitment in reinforcing productivity, supportive attitudes, and persistent behavior (Meyer & Allen, 1997). However, contrary to some previous studies (Bang & Ross, 2009; Doherty, 2009), we found that volunteer satisfaction did not directly predict behavioral engagement. Instead, satisfaction appeared to increase commitment, which, in turn, drove behavioral engagement. This finding highlights the critical mediating role of affective commitment in the relationship between volunteer satisfaction and behavioral engagement in MSEs. This result may be explained by the distinctive nature of MSE volunteering. Unlike ongoing volunteer roles in community sports events, MSE volunteering is time-limited and often involves intense but brief experiences. In this context, mere satisfaction with an experience might not be sufficient to drive behavioral outcomes. Rather, developing a deeper emotional connection and identification with an event (commitment) becomes the crucial mechanism that transforms positive feelings into action.

Practical Implications

The significance of pride in fostering volunteer satisfaction and commitment suggests that event managers should focus on cultivating a sense of accomplishment among volunteers. Given the large scale of volunteer operations, implementing volunteer pride initiative programs might be challenging. However, Olympic organizing committees typically have dedicated volunteer-management departments that can develop structured programs within existing operational frameworks. For example, the organization can collaborate with various departments to implement volunteer compliment-and-reward programs such as displaying volunteer photographs at venues, making special gifts of Olympic-sponsored products, or providing special rewards like free tickets for other events. These implementations can effectively acknowledge volunteers’ contributions and achievements, helping them feel pride in the MSE, which, in turn, will enhance their affection for and commitment toward the organization.

The strong predictive role of person–task fit for both satisfaction and commitment underscores the need for careful volunteer assignment and support. In response to this need, the organization can develop effective volunteer-matching systems. For example, the organizing committee can utilize structured assessment processes in the recruitment process, generate detailed job descriptions for each functional area, and develop specialized training modules tailored to specific volunteer role. Establishing clear communication channels between functional area managers who are in charge of volunteers at the site and volunteer-management supervisors would also allow for timely feedback and necessary adjustments to volunteers’ tasks throughout the event period. These efforts may help enhance volunteers’ sense of competence and alignment with their roles, leading to higher satisfaction and commitment.

Our finding that commitment was significantly associated with behavioral engagement, including WOM, eWOM, cooperation, and intention to continue volunteering, highlights the importance of fostering deep-seated commitment among volunteers. MSE managers should carefully articulate promotional messages that emphasize the importance of volunteer engagement and clearly communicate the specific ways in which volunteers contribute to the success and legacy of the event. Creating meaningful experiences can encourage future volunteer engagement in similar sporting events.

Limitations and Future Research

This study has several limitations that provide opportunities for future research. First, our data collection was limited to volunteers at the 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympic Games. Future studies could validate these findings across different MSE contexts, such as the Summer Olympic Games or FIFA World Cup, to enhance generalizability. In addition, our findings may reflect unique cultural characteristics of volunteering in South Korea, where volunteer motivation is particularly strongly influenced by social factors (e.g., family and friends) and career motivations (e.g., gaining experience for future job prospects). Such unique motivational patterns may differentiate volunteer engagement in Korean culture from those in other cultural environments. Therefore, future studies should cross-validate our findings in multicultural settings to make them more widely applicable.

Second, while our measurement of volunteer engagement focused on traditional behavioral outcomes, the evolving digital landscape offers new ways to conceptualize and measure engagement. Future research could examine emerging forms of digital engagement, such as social media interactions (e.g., writing reviews, content sharing, commenting) and online community participation. Such investigations could provide insights into how virtual volunteer communities develop and sustain engagement beyond the physical event space.

Third, future research could collect additional demographic information from volunteers, such as education level, employment status, and income level, to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the sample characteristics. This would help evaluate the representativeness of the sample and enhance the generalizability of findings to different volunteer populations. Furthermore, examining how these demographic factors influence the key relationships identified in our model could extend theoretical understanding. By testing whether such relevant variables serve as potential moderators or control variables in the volunteer engagement process, researchers could identify significant boundary conditions that shape volunteer behavioral outcomes in MSE contexts.

Fourth, while we used single-item measures for psychological constructs (satisfaction and commitment), future research could benefit from adopting multiple-item scales to enhance measurement reliability and validity. By capturing more comprehensive assessment of psychological constructs, future studies could provide deeper insights into the nuanced effects of satisfaction and commitment on volunteer engagement in MSE contexts.

Finally, our data were based on self-reported measures that may have been subject to social desirability bias. Therefore, future research could include complementary qualitative or observational methods to further validate and enhance our findings.

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