Worldwide, the demographic landscape is undergoing a transformation, with the proportion of older adults increasing in nearly every nation. In China, the demographic shift is particularly pronounced, with data from the National Bureau of Statistics indicating that by 2023, the number of individuals aged 60 years and above had reached 296.97 million, constituting 21.1% of the total population (China’s National Bureau of Statistics, 2024). This figure includes 216.76 million people aged 65 years and above, representing 15.4% of the population. Mental health disorders have emerged as a significant public health issue, posing a threat to the well-being of older adults amidst the rapid aging of the population (Segal et al., 2018). Research has highlighted that mental illnesses in this demographic are associated with elevated risks of depression, suicide, and cognitive impairment (Gomez et al., 2021; Kułak-Bejda et al., 2021). Consequently, prioritizing the mental health of older adults is essential for advancing the principles of active and successful aging.

 

Square dancing (also known as plaza dancing), an emergent form of aerobic exercise in China, is characterized by a collective dance performed spontaneously in public spaces such as squares, parks, and streets, with musical accompaniment (Bai et al., 2022). This activity enjoys widespread participation across the country and is particularly popular among middle-aged and older individuals. Recent empirical studies have revealed that square dancing can effectively enhance mental health among older adults in China (Ou et al., 2022). For instance, Chang et al. (2021) reported that older women with mild mental disorders exhibited reduced depressive symptoms and improved mental-health-related quality of life following an 18-week intervention involving square dancing. Additionally, Bai et al.’s (2022) meta-analysis supported the notion that square dancing is an effective strategy for promoting psychological well-being and mitigating psychological distress.

 

Distinct from Western individualistic cultures that emphasize independence and personal responsibility, Chinese collectivist culture places a premium on interpersonal relationships and familial support (Luo & Waite, 2014). Traditionally, Chinese older adults have relied on strong family bonds for support, viewing cohabitation with adult children and grandchildren as integral to their quality of life in later years; however, the dramatic decline in fertility rates and the rapid pace of urbanization over the past three decades have led to an increasing number of Chinese older adults living in isolation, with the so-called “empty-nest family” comprising 25–35% of Chinese households (Luo & Waite, 2014). These isolated older adults frequently report elevated levels of loneliness and depression, and a diminished quality of life (Luo & Waite, 2014). It is widely acknowledged that integration into socially supportive relationships can enhance the well-being of older adults (Cohen, 2004). Social support, acting as a mechanism through which interpersonal relationships potentially mitigate the impact of a stressful environment (Cohen & McKay, 1984), provides a sense of purpose and has emerged as a pivotal factor for life satisfaction among older adults (Khodabakhsh, 2022). Research has indicated that older adults with limited interpersonal networks exhibit lower levels of psychological well-being (Cui et al., 2024).

 

Prior research on middle-aged and older adults has demonstrated that engagement in group exercise activities, such as square dancing, contributes to the enhancement of positive emotions, broadening of interpersonal networks in daily life, fulfillment of social interaction and emotional communication needs, and increased potential for receiving social support (Komatsu et al., 2017). Qu et al. (2023) highlighted that square dancing, as a group sport characterized by a vibrant atmosphere, facilitates high-frequency social interactions among participants and amplifies the appeal of the group, thereby contributing to the enhancement of perceived social support. Additionally, Wu et al. (2023) observed that middle-aged and older adults with greater participation in square dancing exhibit higher levels of social support.

 

Recent studies have revealed that social support mediates the relationships between physical or sport activity and positive outcomes such as quality of life (Yang et al., 2024), happiness (Kim et al., 2021), and subjective well-being (Guo et al., 2024). Therefore, we aimed to fill a research gap by exploring the relationship between square-dancing participation and the psychological well-being of middle-aged and older adults, as well as elucidating the mediating role of perceived social support in this relationship. Our hypotheses were as follows:

Hypothesis 1: There will be a positive relationship between square-dancing participation and psychological well-being among middle-aged and older adults.

Hypothesis 2: There will be a positive relationship between square-dancing participation and perceived social support among middle-aged and older adults.

Hypothesis 3: There will be a positive relationship between perceived social support and psychological well-being among middle-aged and older adults.

Hypothesis 4: There will be an indirect effect of square-dancing participation on psychological well-being via the mediator of perceived social support among middle-aged and older adults.

Data were obtained through a cross-sectional survey administered in Shanxi Province, China. The study population comprised middle-aged and older adults who were regular participants in square-dancing activities. Participants were approached in public squares during evening sessions, and the purpose and procedure of the study were thoroughly explained to interested individuals. Participation was voluntary and conducted anonymously, with all respondents providing informed consent. Inclusion criteria included being aged 45 years or older, having engaged in regular square dancing for more than 1 year, and possessing no communication barriers. Exclusion criteria were defined as completing the questionnaire in less than 1 minute or providing invalid or incomplete responses. We distributed 330 questionnaires and collected 226 valid forms, yielding an effective response rate of 68.48%. The demographic characteristics of the sample are detailed in Table 1.

The scales we utilized in this study have high levels of reliability and validity. Each scale underwent a back-translation process conducted by two bilingual researchers.

We adopted Zeng and He’s (2024) single-item measure of square-dancing participation. Participants indicate the degree of their engagement in square dancing over the past year using a 5-point Likert scale, with response options of 1 (never), 2 (not monthly, but sometimes), 3 (not weekly, but at least once in a month), 4 (not daily, but once in a week), and 5 (almost every day). Response frequencies were as follows: 0.00% for 1, 4.42% for 2, 11.50% for 3, 36.28% for 4, and 47.80% for 5.

We used Zimet et al.’s (1988) 12-item scale to measure perceived social support, deleting four items due to low item–total correlations. Thus, the final scale included eight items such as “My friends really try to help me.” Responses are recorded on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Cronbach’s alpha was .96 in this study.

We measured psychological well-being using the World Health Organization’s (1998) five-item scale. A sample item is “I feel active and vigorous.” Responses are made on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Cronbach’s alpha was .92 in this study.

We used SPSS 25.0 to obtain descriptive statistics and conduct a correlation analysis. Structural equation modeling with a bootstrapping procedure involving 5,000 resamples and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) in Amos 22.0 was used to examine the hypotheses.

Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics and correlation analyses pertaining to the relationships among square-dancing participation, perceived social support, and psychological well-being. There were positive correlations between square-dancing participation, perceived social support, and psychological well-being. These findings served as a foundation for the subsequent hypothesis testing.

Prior to hypothesis testing, we conducted an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to assess the measurement properties of the constructs. The EFA results corroborated the conceptual structure of the three constructs, while the CFA indicated that the standardized factor loadings were significant, with values ranging from .76 to .90. Composite reliabilities exceeded the .60 threshold and average variance extracted values surpassed the .50 criterion, demonstrating satisfactory reliability and validity.

We employed structural equation modeling to investigate the hypothesized relationships among the constructs. The findings indicated that the path coefficients from square-dancing participation to both psychological well-being and perceived social support were positive and significant, thereby supporting Hypotheses 1 and 2. Additionally, the path coefficient from perceived social support to psychological well-being was positive and significant, lending support to Hypothesis 3. Furthermore, the indirect effect of square-dancing participation on psychological well-being via perceived social support was estimated at .10, representing 29.41% of the total effect. Thus, perceived social support played a significant mediating role in the relationship between square-dancing participation and psychological well-being, supporting Hypothesis 4. The outcomes of the hypothesis testing are depicted in Figure 1.

This research examined the potential for square-dancing participation to influence psychological well-being among middle-aged and older adults in China, with perceived social support hypothesized as a mediator. The findings indicated that perceived social support partially mediated the relationship between square-dancing participation and psychological well-being. These results underscore the significance of both square dancing and perceived social support in enhancing the psychological well-being of Chinese middle-aged and older adults.

This study’s outcomes affirm the positive relationship of square dancing with psychological well-being, demonstrating that increased levels of participation in square dancing are associated with higher psychological well-being. This corroborates previous research that has identified square dancing as a contributor to improved mental health (Bai et al., 2022; Chang et al., 2021; Ou et al., 2022). The rhythmic and melodious nature of square dancing stimulates the release of certain neurotransmitter chemicals during exercise, which mitigate depression, anxiety, and other negative emotions, thereby fostering the generation of positive emotions like happiness (Bai et al., 2022). Furthermore, from an analytical perspective on the movement patterns, square dancing incorporates a variety of coordinated hand and foot movements. As older adults engage in dancing to the beat of the music, this activity serves as a highly effective nonpharmacological intervention for promoting both physical and mental health, as well as enhancing quality of life (Chang et al., 2021). Consequently, during square dancing, middle-aged and older adults can derive enjoyment from the exercise, alleviate negative emotions, and experience a sense of happiness.

We found that engagement in square dancing enhanced the perceived social support of middle-aged and older adults, which, in turn, positively predicted their psychological well-being. This suggests that perceived social support plays a significant mediating role in the relationship between square dancing and psychological well-being. Square dancing fosters social integration by offering opportunities for participants to expand their social networks and form friendships, thereby strengthening both objective and subjective measures of social support (Wu et al., 2023). Social support is a recognized protective factor for mental health, a finding that has been consistently reported in the literature (Harandi et al., 2017). Therefore, as a group sport characterized by a supportive atmosphere, square dancing can foster high-frequency social interactions among members, elevate the level of perceived social support, and subsequently enhance psychological well-being. Our identification of perceived social support as a mediator indicates that square dancing not only directly contributes to psychological well-being but also indirectly improves it through the enhancement of perceived social support among middle-aged and older adults.

 

It is worth considering that other forms of dance, sport, or recreational activities that offer similar opportunities for social support may also have similar benefits for well-being. By promoting social interactions and fostering a sense of belonging among participants, these activities could potentially enhance perceived social support and, consequently, improve psychological well-being. Therefore, the positive effects of square dancing on psychological well-being, mediated by perceived social support, may be applicable to a broad range of social and recreational activities that promote social integration and support.

The findings carry significant practical implications. Governments and community centers should consider promoting and organizing square-dancing programs, which can serve as a conduit for social engagement, physical exercise, and mental stimulation. Moreover, healthcare professionals and policymakers may consider integrating square dancing or similar group activities into mental health promotion strategies, acknowledging their potential to bolster psychological well-being. This could involve advocating for these activities as nonpharmacological interventions for stress, depression, and anxiety management. Additionally, governments, community organizations, and healthcare providers should prioritize initiatives that foster social connection and interaction among middle-aged and older adults. This might entail creating opportunities for group activities, social events, and volunteering, as well as supporting existing social groups and clubs.

First, the current study employed a cross-sectional design to investigate the mediation model. It remains unclear whether higher psychological well-being leads to greater enthusiasm for square dancing or if enthusiasm for square dancing contributes to higher psychological well-being. Future research could employ a longitudinal or experimental design to gain an in-depth understanding of the complex relationship between passion for square dancing and psychological well-being. Second, the participants had a very high mean score for square-dancing participation. Future research could include a broader range of participants with varying levels of square-dancing engagement. Third, we exclusively explored the mediating role of perceived social support and thus did not fully elucidate the mechanisms underlying the relationship between square dancing and the psychological well-being of middle-aged and older adults. Future research could incorporate additional mediators and moderators to more comprehensively elucidate the impact mechanism of square dancing on this demographic.

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