As the emotional dimension in body self, body dissatisfaction refers to a negative perception about one’s body (Cash & Deagle, 1997). With physical attractiveness playing an increasingly important role in social life, body dissatisfaction has become common, particularly among adolescents (Zhang et al., 2024). Many studies have been conducted (e.g., Rodgers et al., 2014) to explore the risk factors related to body dissatisfaction among adolescents and gain a deeper understanding of the intrinsic causes, with a view to developing better preventative measures and interventions. Among the factors examined in previous research, social networking site use has garnered particular attention (Holland & Tiggemann, 2016).

 

Most scholars have taken one of two perspectives on the relationship between social networking site use and adolescents’ body dissatisfaction. First, some take the view that social networking site use leads to body dissatisfaction. In the tripartite influence model, Thompson et al. (1999) suggested that the media, family, and peers are important factors that contribute to an individual’s body dissatisfaction. Social networking sites have the attributes of media, and peers and family interact on these sites. The unique combination of these three factors offers young people abundant opportunity for appearance comparison, allowing them to scrutinize appearance based on their cognition (Vandenbosch et al., 2022). For example, researchers have found a significant positive relationship between social networking site use and behavior among adolescent girls and college women, including internalization of the thin ideal, self-objectification, and disordered eating (Fardouly et al., 2015; Tiggemann & Slater, 2013). On this basis, researchers examining the relationship between general social networking site use and negative body image have obtained inconsistent findings. Fardouly and Vartanian (2015) asked participants how much time they usually spent on Facebook on a typical day, and how many times they checked Facebook during the day. A positive correlation was found between time spent on the social networking site and lower body satisfaction. However, other researchers have reported finding a negative association (Rutledge et al., 2013) or no significant association (Ferguson et al., 2014) between use of social networking sites and body dissatisfaction. Saiphoo and Vahedi (2019) suggested that the reason for these differences could be that general measures of time or frequency of use of social networking sites are so broad that they do not represent users’ emotional connection to these sites. Therefore, further clarification of this relationship is essential. One operational approach is to introduce an indicator of intensity of social networking site use, reflecting individuals’ emotional attachment to the use of social networking sites and the integration of such sites into their life (Ellison et al., 2007).

 

The second perspective is that body dissatisfaction serves as a risk factor for social networking site use (Rousseau et al., 2017). Currently, evidence directly supporting the role of body dissatisfaction in social networking site use is limited; however, there is much indirect evidence of a positive correlation between these variables. For example, McLean et al. (2015) found that adolescents experiencing body image anxiety or eating-related issues are inclined to engage in upward social comparisons on the internet to assess and validate their conformity to sociocultural norms, resulting in frequent use of social networking sites. According to the theory of development of critical body awareness, individuals’ motivations and characteristics determine the ways in which they experience social media (Rodgers & Laveway, 2022). For instance, individuals who are dissatisfied with their body or who have high investment in their appearance tend to possess higher appearance-feedback and appearance-enhancement motivations, and measure their social status in terms of physical appearance by seeking frequent use of appearance-related social networking sites or online self-presentation. According to this theory, individuals who experience more, compared to less, body dissatisfaction may devote more energy to use of social networking sites and may spend more time seeking approval, affirmation, and praise from others in order to alleviate their insecurities in regard to their self-image (Tylka et al., 2023). As a result, individuals with body dissatisfaction are likely to spend a significant amount of time on social networking sites and will be more likely to log on to these sites to find ways to improve their appearance. Despite the theoretical possibility of the predictive role of body dissatisfaction on social networking site use, few empirical studies have been conducted to examine this effect. Our aim in the current study was to address this research gap by exploring this issue in a non-Western cultural context, to further clarify the interrelationship between social networking site use and body dissatisfaction among Chinese adolescents.

 

We combined the tripartite influence model (Thompson et al., 1999) and the theory of development of critical body awareness (Rodgers & Laveway, 2022) with the aim of validating the findings of previous empirical studies on the relationship of social networking site use with body dissatisfaction. We also assessed the distinct predictive influence of body dissatisfaction on social networking site use. Accordingly, we proposed the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1: Use of social networking sites will predict adolescents’ subsequent body dissatisfaction.

Hypothesis 2: Adolescents’ body dissatisfaction will predict their subsequent social networking site use.

 

The proposed conceptual model is shown in Figure 1. Moreover, we focused on gender differences in adolescents’ social networking site use and body dissatisfaction. On the one hand, the impact of media on adolescent body image may differ based on gender (Kimbrough et al., 2013). On the other hand, on social media, unlike traditional media, women are not specifically targeted: Both girls and boys are frequent users of social media and post idealized appearance content on these sites (Saiphoo & Vahedi, 2019). Exploring the topic of gender differences may provide more targeted strategies for promoting healthy lifestyles among adolescents. As this aspect of our research was treated as an exploratory analysis, we did not form specific hypotheses regarding the influence or impact of gender in the use of social networking sites and body dissatisfaction.

The ethics committee of the School of Psychology at Northeast Normal University approved this study. We selected students in Liaoning and Jiangsu Provinces, China, via cluster sampling for a two-time-point study, with 8 months between the first and second time points (T1 and T2). The initial sample of 687 participants completed the study survey for the first time in October 2022, during the fall semester. The second measurement (T2) took place at the end of the spring semester in June, but there were 82 fewer participants because some had dropped out, transferred, or were ill, and some surveys were discarded because of incomplete data. Given the significance of sample size in longitudinal follow-up studies, we analyzed sample loss rates. The analysis indicated that there were no significant differences in either social networking site use or body dissatisfaction between the adolescents who had completed the survey only at T1 and those who completed the survey at both T1 and T2 (ts < 1.96, ps > .05). Thus, there was no structural attrition of participants in this study. Additionally, we estimated the necessary sample size for this study using G*Power 3.1 software. We based our calculation on an alpha level of .05 and a Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient effect size of .20, and determined that 193 participants were required as a minimum to achieve 80% statistical test power. The sample size utilized in this study satisfied this requirement. Of the 605 survey forms retained for analysis, 341 (56.4%) were completed by boys and young men and 264 (43.6%) were completed by girls and young women. At the baseline, the mean age was 16.9 years (SD = 2.5, range = 12–19).

 

We advertised the study as a survey on internet use and mental health. Informed consent was obtained from all participants and their parents prior to data collection. Trained graduate assistants administered the paper-and-pencil survey, which participants completed in a classroom. Upon completion of the survey, participants were compensated with a notebook (valued at USD 0.70) or a credit in their mental health class. The same procedure was followed for both T1 and T2 data collection.

Participants were asked for their age and gender. Objective measures of current weight and height were taken by the trained graduate assistants to calculate body mass index (BMI; kg/m²).

 

We used the Social Networking Site Use Intensity Questionnaire, developed by Ellison et al. (2007), which was translated and revised into Chinese by X. Sun et al. (2016). It comprises eight items, the first two of which record the number of friends participants have on social networking sites, and the average time spent using the sites in a day. Our participants had an average of 101–150 friends and spent 2–3 hours per day on social networking sites.

 

The remaining six items are designed to measure the intensity of respondents’ emotional connection with social networking sites, as well as the degree to which these sites are integrated into their life (e.g., “Social networking sites are part of my daily activities” and “I would feel sad if social networking sites were to close”). Following the recommendation of X. Sun et al. (2016), we evaluated the intensity of participants’ social networking site use with a 5-point Likert scale (1 = very inconsistent to 5 = very consistent), and derived individual participants’ mean scores for each of the six items, with higher scores indicating a greater intensity of social networking site use. The scale demonstrated good reliability and validity among Chinese adolescents, as evidenced by Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of .84 and .85 at the two time points in our study.

 

We used the body areas satisfaction subscale of the Multidimensional Body–Self Relations Questionnaire to measure body dissatisfaction (Cash, 2000). The items are designed to assess the extent to which individuals are dissatisfied with nine aspects of their body (face, hair, upper torso, mid torso, lower torso, muscle tone, weight, height, and overall appearance). Response options range from 1 = very satisfied to 5 = very dissatisfied, with higher scores indicating greater body dissatisfaction. This measure has been validated among Chinese samples in previous research (Wang, Yang, et al., 2020). In this study Cronbach’s alpha was .92 at T1 and .91 at T2.

The data analysis was performed using SPSS 24.0. Correlation analysis was used to investigate the cross-sectional and longitudinal relationship between social networking site use and body dissatisfaction. A cross-lagged model was constructed using Amos 23.0 to analyze the reciprocal relationship between social networking site use and body dissatisfaction.

Descriptive statistics, correlation coefficients, and results of a repeated measures analysis of variance are presented in Table 1. There was a significant positive correlation between social networking site use and body dissatisfaction at both T1 and T2. Additionally, there were significant positive correlations between scores at T1 and at T2 for social networking site use and body dissatisfaction. The analysis of variance indicated a slight increase at a marginal level of significance in body dissatisfaction over the 8-month period, and social networking site use significantly increased over the same timeframe.

On the basis of the correlation analysis results, we constructed cross-lagged regression models for the relationship of use of social networking sites and body dissatisfaction, controlling for age and BMI. From the various regression coefficients in the autoregressive path, social networking site use at T1 positively predicted social networking site use at T2, and body dissatisfaction at T1 positively predicted body dissatisfaction at T2. In the cross-lagged regression path, initial social networking site use significantly and positively predicted subsequent body dissatisfaction, and initial body dissatisfaction significantly and positively predicted subsequent social networking site use (see Figure 2). Thus, both our hypotheses were supported as our results showed that use of social networking sites predicted adolescents’ subsequent body dissatisfaction, and their body dissatisfaction predicted their subsequent social networking site use.

To explore gender differences within the cross-lagged model, we conducted a gender-specific multigroup analysis. Initially, we developed a flexible model in which the parameters differed based on gender. Subsequently, we designed a model with equivalent structural weights, where the autoregressive path coefficients and cross-lagged regression path coefficients were the same for both genders. By employing a chi-squared test, we found that the equal path constraint did not significantly affect the model, Δχ²(4) = 5.58, p = .23. This indicates that the social networking site use and body dissatisfaction of Chinese adolescents did not differ significantly by gender.

Debate has arisen among scholars regarding the direction of the relationship between social networking site use and body dissatisfaction. As a cross-sectional design has been used in most previous studies, it has been difficult to accurately reveal the orientation of the relationship and provide evidence to support the competing theoretical perspectives. In our study we utilized a longitudinal design with an 8-month interval between the two time points to determine the orientation between social networking site use and body dissatisfaction among Chinese adolescents. By using this method, we have not only expanded upon prior cross-sectional studies of the connection between social networking site use and body dissatisfaction (Holland & Tiggemann, 2016), but our results also support the tripartite influence model (Thompson et al., 1999) and offer empirical evidence for the theory of critical body awareness development (Rodgers & Laveway, 2022). At the same time, our findings provide a clear direction for mental health education, namely, regardless of the direction of the relationship, interventions are needed to help to halt the cycle in the relationship between social networking site use and body dissatisfaction.

 

In our analysis of the results of tests conducted at the two time points, we found a significant positive correlation between Chinese adolescents’ social networking site use and body dissatisfaction. Additionally, the level at the time of the first test significantly and positively predicted the level of development 8 months later, showing a cumulative risk effect over time. If left unchecked, body satisfaction can deteriorate and social network use can progressively increase, ultimately leading to severe psychological disorders and behavioral problems (Zhang et al., 2024). Our findings align with those in previous research indicating a time-perpetuating effect in terms of the level of social networking site use, which is challenging to reduce in the short term and may lead to addiction (Buglass et al., 2017). Likewise, we observed a significant rise in social networking site use over the 8-month study period, underscoring the need for interventions to prevent addiction. Furthermore, we observed a slight increase in participants’ body dissatisfaction over the 8-month period, in line with the finding of previous research, indicating a lasting effect of body dissatisfaction over time (Homan, 2010).

 

In the current study, the level of social networking site use among adolescents at T1 significantly and positively predicted their level of body dissatisfaction at T2 (8 months later). This result demonstrates the social media impact of the tripartite influence model (Thompson et al., 1999), enriching research in the field and holding cross-cultural significance. Users of social networking sites post status updates or share information on their homepage and look for others’ comments, as well as commenting on friends’ status updates. These activities can involve a great deal of information related to physical appearance, and prolonged browsing of such information tends to increase users’ concern about their weight and body shape (Gu et al., 2021). At the same time, social networking sites are mostly populated by friends and other people of similar age and social status, which provides a platform for adolescents to make comparisons of physical appearance (Fardouly et al., 2017). As users often upload their most attractive photographs on social networking sites, individuals make upward comparisons with these images, which may lead adolescents to develop a negative self-perception or feeling that they are not as good as others, thus increasing the risk of body dissatisfaction (Leahey et al., 2007). Additionally, as an emerging media form, social networking sites exert considerable sociocultural pressures. Beyond peers and friends, these sites feature celebrities and social media influencers, who are mostly presented with bodies that have been carefully groomed and beautified. Such sociocultural pressures may lead adolescents to internalize the thin body as the socially accepted beauty standard, resulting in body dissatisfaction and feelings of guilt or shame due to its unattainability (Homan, 2010; Zhang & Zhang, 2019). Our finding validates and extends those of the longitudinal study by de Vries et al. (2016), suggesting that the intensity of social networking site use, along with its duration or frequency, equally predicts subsequent body dissatisfaction. Researchers should explore the link between the intensity of social networking site use and other variables in the area of body image in future studies, further enriching this research field.

 

We also found that adolescents’ body dissatisfaction at T1 significantly predicted their behavior on social networking sites 8 months later at T2. This finding provides evidence to support the theory of critical body awareness development (Rodgers & Laveway, 2022). Social networking sites, with their convenience and openness, serve as significant platforms for individuals to access information and develop their identity. Individuals experiencing high levels of body dissatisfaction tend to be driven by appearance feedback and often engage in specific appearance-focused activities (Jarman et al., 2024) as a measure of their social status in terms of appearance. Such activities encompass viewing hashtagged images #fitspiration and #thinspiration on Instagram (Prichard et al., 2020), and engaging in appearance comparisons and body talk on social networking sites (Wang, Wang et al., 2020). Users often engage in idealized self-presentation, like editing photographs of themselves, to elicit positive appearance feedback from others (Q. Sun, 2021). However, appearance comparisons or insufficient feedback can intensify a negative self-assessment of body image, creating a cycle of body dissatisfaction, increased social networking site use, and further dissatisfaction. This indicates that there is a bidirectional relationship between social networking site use and body dissatisfaction. Notably, in our study the effect of body dissatisfaction on social networking site use was significantly weaker than was the predictive effect of social networking site use on body dissatisfaction. This outcome may be attributed to our measurement approach, even though we made efforts to avoid measuring an individual’s use of social networking sites solely by the time spent or frequency. Certain appearance-focused activities on social networking sites, like taking selfies, are more strongly linked than other activities are to body dissatisfaction (Mills et al., 2018). Therefore, future studies could adopt more content-specific measures of use of social networking sites to gain a better understanding of the relationship between body dissatisfaction and use of social networking sites (Schreurs & Vandenbosch, 2022).

 

We did not find any significant gender differences between social networking site use and body dissatisfaction. We believe that the ubiquity and user-friendliness of social networking sites may contribute to this phenomenon. Social media sites are constantly being updated with new iterations, and the content is likely to become more personalized to meet the needs of its users, thus appealing to all genders (Sha et al., 2019), who have equal access to social media content on beauty, fitness, and fashion. Frequent exposure to idealized appearance, body shape, or lifestyle content may lead adolescents to make unconscious comparisons, and to feel at a disadvantage or that they are nonconforming, thus increasing their body dissatisfaction. Conversely, use of social media sites can also serve as a coping strategy for individuals aiming to alleviate body dissatisfaction. According to compensatory internet use theory, individuals in an adverse environment may turn to virtual online activities to alleviate negative emotions and fulfill unmet needs through media that align with their motivations (Kardefelt-Winther, 2014). The use of social networking sites can serve to distract from and lessen the negative emotions linked to body dissatisfaction, as well as allowing users to seek social support and positive feedback, thus mitigating the impact of body dissatisfaction (Jarman et al., 2024).

In addition to theoretical contributions, our findings have practical implications. To prevent and intervene in adolescents’ body dissatisfaction, parents and educators should encourage their adolescent children to reduce the amount of time they spend on social networking sites and reduce their emotional engagement with these sites. The aim should be for adolescents to approach the features of social networking sites in a rational way and avoid expending excessive mental resources on online interactions. Instead, they should be guided to invest more time and energy into more beneficial offline activities. At the same time, given that use of social networking sites is a risk factor for body dissatisfaction, individuals experiencing such issues should monitor their use of social networking sites and consider intervention if it is identified as a contributing factor. Mental health staff and clinical practitioners should gain understanding about use of social networking sites by individuals who are obese or who have body image disorders, and guide them to form more reasonable expectations of social media use. In addition, operators of social media sites should develop a system that will provide young users with useful and needful information including clear guidelines prioritizing educational, health, and safety content while limiting exposure to appearance-focused material, alongside age-appropriate content filtering. Additionally, regular audits and updates should be implemented to ensure compliance with these guidelines.

There are limitations in our study and some valuable enhancements that could be made. First, the sample for this study consisted exclusively of Chinese adolescents, meaning the results cannot be generalized to other populations, although we expect similar findings to be validated in other cultural contexts. Second, we conducted the survey at two time points spaced 8 months apart, which revealed the respondents’ orientation, but it is difficult to complete a systematic investigation into the development of the relationship between social networking site use and body dissatisfaction, and changes to this relationship within this timeframe. In the future, a multifrequency longitudinal tracking design could be considered. Finally, we examined the direct correlation between the use of social networking sites and body dissatisfaction in a cross-lagged model. In future research, longitudinal mediators or moderating variables could be introduced to explore the complex mechanisms involved.

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Cash, T. F. (2000). The Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire. https://doi.org/10.1037/t08755-000

 

Cash, T. F., & Deagle, E. A., III (1997). The nature and extent of body‐image disturbances in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa: A meta‐analysis. The International Journal of Eating Disorders, 22(2), 107–125. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-108X(199709)22:2<107::AID-EAT1>3.0.CO;2-J

 

de Vries, D. A., Peter, J., de Graaf, H., & Nikken, P. (2016). Adolescents’ social network site use, peer appearance-related feedback, and body dissatisfaction: Testing a mediation model. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45(1), 211–224. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0266-4

 

Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2007). The benefits of Facebook “friends:” Social capital and college students’ use of online social network sites. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12(4), 1143–1168. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00367.x

 

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