The global economy is in a state of rapid change, making markets highly competitive (Ahmad et al., 2023) and entrepreneurship more essential than ever before. China has a rapidly growing economy and strong ties with the world market, making it a hotspot for entrepreneurial activities (Tao et al., 2022). In this context an entrepreneurial education is one of the most crucial mechanisms for developing the spirit of independent self-employment among young graduates (Yousaf et al., 2021). Entrepreneurial self-efficacy is the belief in one’s ability to engage in entrepreneurial tasks (Baron et al., 2000), while intrinsic motivation is the inner desire to develop entrepreneurship for personal growth rather than external rewards (Ryan et al., 2000). To enhance the reach of this education, it is essential to understand the reasons and motives behind students taking the initiative of self-employment (Adu et al., 2020).

 

The education sector in China, especially the college education system, is the focus of this study for several reasons. In college, students’ career ambitions grow more self-oriented, as students are motivated by autonomy and personal success (Guerrero et al., 2020). Thus, many are readily drawn toward the paths of self-employment and entrepreneurship. Meanwhile, China’s educational policy in recent years has been leaning more toward innovation and entrepreneurship, which can be seen as a part of a bigger strategic goal to build an entrepreneurial spirit in the youth (Mei & Symaco, 2022). Hence, examining this perspective among Chinese college students is not only in line with national educational agendas but also helps to explain the cultural and economic factors that matter in the development of entrepreneurial skills.

 

This study examined the relationship between entrepreneurial education and self-employment intentions, utilizing two psychological constructs as mediators: entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation. Although the current literature has acknowledged the ability of these psychological factors to explain a range of human behavioral intentions (Chen et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2024), to the authors’ knowledge, no studies have examined the mediating potential of these variables in this particular context. In addition, most of the current literature on entrepreneurial intentions tends to be centered on Western countries (Boubker et al., 2021; Cera et al., 2020). As a result, the influence in developing economies like China of cultural and economic factors on self-employment intentions, which can be very influential, remain poorly understood. Therefore, I proposed a comprehensive model that illustrates the indirect influence of entrepreneurial education on self-employment intentions among Chinese college students, as well as the interactive effects of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation, offering culturally related information that will increase the practicality of entrepreneurial frameworks in China.

Researchers have found positive associations between entrepreneurial education and students’ self-employment intentions (Boubker et al., 2021; Cera et al., 2020). For example, Duong (2022) found that entrepreneurial education can enhance self-employment intentions among students by positively influencing their entrepreneurial attitude. According to social cognitive theory (SCT), learning in a social context occurs through a two-way interaction between an individual and a social environment (Bandura, 2003). Applying the SCT framework to the context of entrepreneurial education, students’ outcome expectations are developed as a consequence of educational learning experiences that drive their entrepreneurial behavioral intentions (Tantawy et al., 2021). By observing successful role models, engaging in experiential learning, and obtaining social incentives, students acquire a more powerful assessment and a favorable perception of entrepreneurial results, which greatly impacts their self-employment intentions. Therefore, I proposed the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1: Entrepreneurial education will be positively related to students’ self-employment intentions.

 

Entrepreneurial self-efficacy is also important in developing self-employment intentions, since it directly impacts both the intention and the resilience needed in entrepreneurial pursuits (Soomro & Shah, 2022). Researchers have consistently shown that the higher the levels of entrepreneurial self-efficacy, the higher the chances of individuals deciding to start a business (Neneh, 2022). This is because those who possess these entrepreneurial traits tend to visualize themselves building and managing a business, see entrepreneurship as something that is desirable, and feel like they are capable of dealing with the many challenges that entrepreneurship involves (Maheshwari & Kha, 2022). These findings are especially significant in educational contexts, where the practice of nurturing self-efficacy through tailored curricula and experiential learning directly prompts more students to develop an interest in and seek entrepreneurial career paths (Neneh, 2022).

 

Since learning and behavior are affected by a continuous process of exchange between personal, contextual, and behavioral factors, SCT can also help explain the mediating role of entrepreneurial self-efficacy in the relationship between entrepreneurial education and students’ self-employment intentions. In the educational context of entrepreneurship, learning activities improve self-efficacy, which positively influences self-employment intentions (Bayrón, 2013). The educational atmosphere creates the right environment for students to obtain the knowledge, know-how, and vicarious learning opportunities that enable them to believe that they can also be entrepreneurs (Ratten & Usmanij, 2021). This self-efficacy enhances their intention to start up and manage a new business. Therefore, I proposed the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 2: Entrepreneurial self-efficacy will be positively related to students’ self-employment intentions.

Hypothesis 3: Entrepreneurial self-efficacy will mediate the relationship between entrepreneurial education and students’ self-employment intentions.

 

Intrinsic motivation fosters perseverance and dedication even without immediate rewards (Antonioli et al., 2016). According to SCT, individuals are motivated to engage in activities they find fulfilling (Mukhtar et al., 2021). Therefore, individuals with higher intrinsic motivation are more likely to choose entrepreneurship due to its ability to provide autonomy and personal fulfillment (Al-Jubari et al., 2019; Solórzano-García et al., 2022), indicating that the enjoyment of entrepreneurial activities increases the likelihood of pursuing entrepreneurship (Arshad et al., 2021). Paliwal et al. (2022) found that entrepreneurial education that focuses on creativity, problem solving, and innovation can boost intrinsic motivation by nurturing students’ inherent interests and passions, making venture creation more exciting. Therefore, it is reasonable to infer that entrepreneurial education programs that align with students’ interests are likely to increase their entrepreneurial intentions. Hence, I proposed the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 4: Intrinsic motivation will be positively related to students’ self-employment intentions.

Hypothesis 5: Intrinsic motivation will mediate the relationship between entrepreneurial education and students’ self-employment intentions.

To determine the sample size needed for this study, I conducted a power analysis using G*Power. To achieve a power of 0.95 with an alpha value of .05, a minimum of 384 participants was required for the analysis. Anticipating lower response rates, I distributed 600 paper questionnaires to Chinese college students enrolled in business-related courses in Beijing and Shanghai. These cities are centers of academic quality and innovation and, thus, the most likely to contain students who had been exposed to entrepreneurship education. Further, the universities I selected have a reputation for being strong business schools with a focus on entrepreneurship.

 

I administered paper-and-pencil surveys to ensure inclusivity for students with limited digital access. In addition, I abided by the Helsinki Declaration ethical standards by ensuring that informed consent, anonymity, and voluntary participation were part of the study procedure. I did not offer any incentives, and participants were informed that they could opt out of the study without any penalties or consequences. Of 442 completed forms that were returned, 418 were valid (effective response rate = 69.9%). Table 1 contains the respondents’ demographic details.

To ensure reliability and validity, I used established scales to measure all variables. All scales were administered in their original language, English, which is commonly understandable in China, especially in the context of educational institutions.

 

Entrepreneurial education was assessed using five items taken from Kisubi et al. (2021). A sample item is “Education enhances my ability to better perceive business opportunities in my environment.” To measure entrepreneurial self-efficacy, I used four items from the scale by Zhao et al. (2005). A sample item is “I am convinced that I can successfully discover new business opportunities.” To measure intrinsic motivation, I adapted three items from Gagné et al. (2015). A sample item is “It will be exciting to do my own business.” Last, I measured self-employment intention using six items developed by Liñán and Chen (2009). A sample item is “I will make every effort to start and run my own business.” All items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

 

To address social desirability bias and common method bias, I assured participants of the anonymity of their responses to encourage honest answers, randomized the questionnaire items to reduce the effects of answer patterning, and employed Harman’s single-factor test during the analysis stage.

I conducted data analysis using structural equation modeling in SmartPLS software version 3.2.

This study examined the reliability of the measurement items by conducting a confirmatory factor analysis. Table 2 shows that for the focal constructs of entrepreneurial education, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and self-employment intentions, factor loadings ranged from .75 to .90 and were thus significant (> .70), confirming their reliability. In addition, I measured the items’ reliability (> .70) and convergent validity (> .50) with composite reliability scores. These scores exceeded the average variance extracted (AVE) values and thus were also significant, providing a foundation for conducting structural equation modeling.

 

The findings in Table 3 show that there were positive correlations between the variables, indicating their interrelatedness. Entrepreneurial education and entrepreneurial self-efficacy were moderately correlated, which implies that educational services might have been responsible for self-efficacy development, while the relatively low correlations between entrepreneurial education and both intrinsic motivation and self-employment intentions suggested more indirect effects. The AVE values between entrepreneurial education (.94), entrepreneurial self-efficacy (.87), intrinsic motivation (.90), and self-employment intentions (.93) were greater than the squared correlations between each pair of constructs, suggesting strong discriminant validity. Heterotrait–monotrait ratios, including entrepreneurial education to entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation to self-employment intentions, were below the .85 threshold, further demonstrating discriminant validity.

I applied SmartPLS for structural equation modeling, as it is suitable for handling complex models and small samples in exploratory analysis, and found several significant relationships. First, entrepreneurial education had a significant effect on self-employment intentions. Second, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation positively predicted self-employment intentions. Last, the mediating roles of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation in the relationship between entrepreneurial education and self-employment intentions were significant. These results are summarized in Table 4.

This study investigated the impact of entrepreneurial education on students’ self-efficacy and motivation, which ultimately determine their entrepreneurial intentions. In line with the first hypothesis and previous research findings (Boubker et al., 2021; Cera et al., 2020), the results show that entrepreneurial education enhanced students’ self-employment intentions. This finding indicates that entrepreneurial education has a positive impact on students’ psychology, as it bolsters their ability and psychological disposition to undertake entrepreneurial activities. In addition, I found that entrepreneurial self-efficacy enhanced students’ self-employment intentions, which is in line with the second hypothesis and previous research findings (Bayrón, 2013). This relationship was mediated by entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation, supporting my remaining hypotheses and in line with previous research findings (Neneh, 2022; Solórzano-García et al., 2022). The highly significant partial mediating role of intrinsic motivation indicates the importance of student-centered approaches that connect educational subject matter to students’ interests, thereby enhancing fun and fulfillment. In the context of SCT, educational environments mediate the beliefs that affect action and the motivation for entrepreneurship, while social context learning improves personal efficiency and drive (Bandura, 2003). Considering these findings together, this study highlights the importance of entrepreneurial education in self-employment intentions, pointing to the significance of competence and confidence.

 

My findings offer culturally related information that increases the practicality of entrepreneurial frameworks in China. At present, there is little statistical data about entrepreneurship education in Chinese college campuses. These findings provide strong evidence to evaluate these programs, which goes beyond anecdotal evidence and is suitable for use in educational policy and practice. In doing so, this study furthers understanding of the relationship between educational content and entrepreneurial outcomes in China.

This research has refined current knowledge of entrepreneurial education by identifying the mediating roles of both entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation in the relationship between educational programs and self-employment intentions within the framework of SCT. The inclusion of these intermediaries broadens the perception regarding how entrepreneurial actions emerge from educational experiences. By advancing knowledge of how educational interventions impact on self-employment intentions and entrepreneurial outcomes in the Chinese context, this research contributes to the literature and offers an illustration of SCT as well as providing a framework for subsequent investigations of the cognitive and affective consequences of entrepreneurial education.

This study has practical implications. I found that entrepreneurial education boosted self-employment intentions through increasing students’ self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation. Therefore, policymakers should invest in entrepreneurial education to prepare a generation of entrepreneurs for economic innovation and development. Since intrinsic motivation is an influential factor, education systems and curricula should be developed with a focus on enhancing students’ enjoyment by aligning educational curricula with their intrinsic interests and passions, as well as instilling confidence in their entrepreneurial abilities. Providing external motivation for students may, in turn, foster their self-generated, intrinsic motivation, better preparing them for entrepreneurial success. Programs should also be customized to match students’ career goals, such as sector-specific entrepreneurial studies. Successful entrepreneurs could contribute by offering mentorships, seminars, or other training programs that facilitate a space in which they can offer connections and insights that improve students’ self-efficacy levels.

This study has limitations. Self-reported data from college students may be influenced by social desirability and recall biases, preventing the findings from being universally applicable. A longitudinal design might be useful in future studies to examine how entrepreneurial intentions change with time. In addition, future researchers could test the model in different cultural settings to make the results more generalizable. A more complete understanding of entrepreneurial intentions could be achieved if other influencing factors were considered in the research model, such as risk tolerance or peer influence. Last, future researchers could examine whether certain types of entrepreneurship education programs are more effective than others.

This study applied SCT to investigate the pivotal role of entrepreneurial education in boosting self-employment intentions among college students, with entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation serving as significant mediators. The results highlight how educational programs can influence not only entrepreneurial skills but also psychological readiness for entrepreneurship. There is a need for educational curricula that inspire as well as educate, fostering both the cognitive and motivational dimensions necessary for effective entrepreneurship. My findings enrich the existing debate on entrepreneurial education, suggesting that comprehensive strategies can significantly cultivate entrepreneurial spirit. Practical recommendations include the development of educational curricula that are both informative and inspiring, comprehensively preparing students for successful entrepreneurial endeavors in a competitive global economy.

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