Parent–child relationship and learning engagement: A moderated mediation model
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Cite this article:
Zhu, M., Yao, X., & Abu Talib, M.
(2025). Parent–child relationship and learning engagement: A moderated mediation model.
Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal,
53(3),
e14077.
Abstract
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This study investigated how parent–child, peer, and teacher–student relationships affect high school students’ learning engagement. Participants comprised 658 Chinese high school students who completed anonymous surveys at a single time point. The results showed that (a) all three relationships positively predicted learning engagement, (b) peer relationships partially mediated the effect of parent–child relationships on learning engagement, and (c) teacher–student relationships moderated both the direct pathway through which parent–child relationships affected learning engagement and the latter part of the mediated pathway through peer relationships. The findings have implications for the design of future educational programs, which could leverage the combined benefits of parent–child and peer relationships to enhance teacher–student relationships and boost students’ learning engagement.
Article Highlights
- Parent–child relationships significantly and positively predicted learning engagement, while peer relationships played a mediating role in this relationship.
- Teacher–student relationships significantly moderated the effect of parent–child relationships on learning engagement.
- We found that parent–child relationships enhanced learning engagement and described this mechanism’s action path and boundary conditions.
Learning engagement plays a significant role in students’ academic success and educational quality (J. W. Chen et al., 2015; M.-T. Wang & Hofkens, 2020), making it a key focus in educational psychology (Boekaerts, 2016). Adolescence is a critical phase for developing “learning to learn” skills, and high school students, who face complex subjects and university entrance examinations, in particular need deep engagement (M.-T. Wang et al., 2018). Research has shown that learning engagement enhances academic performance, skill development (Zusho, 2017), learning satisfaction, and mental health (P. Chen et al., 2021). However, previous studies have often concentrated on negative student behaviors and overlooked factors that affect positive learning engagement (Li & Lv, 2022). Therefore, this study explored the factors influencing high school students’ learning engagement and outlined strategies to enhance learning quality, promoting transformative educational development in China.
Individual learning engagement is defined as sustained participation in the education process that is both cognitive and behavioral, requiring intense energy and concentration while also generating a positive emotional experience (P. Chen et al., 2021). One of the most important factors affecting learning engagement is social relationships. Banks and Smyth (2021) found that social relationships significantly enhance learning engagement, while Zhao et al. (2021) found that positive relationships between parents, teachers, and peers are crucial for adolescent growth and learning support. However, although the current literature has highlighted the impact of parent–child, peer, and teacher–student relationships on high school students’ learning engagement, most studies have focused on just one type of relationship rather than considering their combined influence (Geng et al., 2023). This trend is in contrast to the recent rise of developmental contextualism theory in developmental psychology research, which emphasizes the combined effects of different environments on individual development (X. Chen, 2020). Although some researchers have examined the effect of multiple types of interpersonal relationships on learning engagement (Ansong et al., 2017; Heatly & Votruba-Drzal, 2017; Skinner et al., 2022), few studies have focused on the teacher–student relationship as a mediator or peer relationships as moderators. To build on this research, it is essential to integrate these interpersonal relationships into a single model and examine the influence on learning engagement.
Parent–Child Relationship and Learning Engagement
Transitioning to high school is a critical stage in a student’s development. Parent–child relationships are vital during this period (Benner & Graham, 2009), influencing students’ personality and behavior (Skinner et al., 2022). Earlier studies highlighted the positive effect of the parent–child relationship on learning engagement, academic achievement, and student well-being (Dotterer & Wehrspann, 2016; Fatimaningrum, 2022), while more recently, scholars have investigated mechanisms such as motivation, self-efficacy, adaptability, and self-regulation (Geng et al., 2023; Shao & Kang, 2022). According to Parke et al. (1992), the strength of the parent–child bond may also determine how children’s relationships with peers and teachers develop, which underscores the paramount importance of this connection. Drawing on these findings, this study investigated how peer relationships and teacher–student relationships influence the effect of parent–child relationships on learning engagement.
Peer Relationships as a Mediator
As high school students develop self-awareness and independence, the influence of peer relationships on their development becomes more pronounced compared to that of adults (Zhou et al., 2015). Oldfield et al. (2016) used an indirect effects model to explain the effect of parent–child and peer relationships on adolescents’ learning psychology, and found that peer relationships played a crucial mediating role. According to attachment theory, stable parent–child bonds can provide secure internal models and subsequently form the foundation for positive peer relationships (Bowlby, 1982), contributing to fulfilling and supportive peer bonds (Boele et al., 2019; Murphy et al., 2017). Researchers have also found that peer relationships can significantly predict learning engagement (Shao & Kang, 2022). Therefore, we proposed the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1: Peer relationships will play a mediating role in the link between parent–child relationships and learning engagement.
Teacher–Student Relationships as a Moderator
According to developmental contextualism theory, human development is influenced by evolving interactions with various environments (Lerner, 2018). Researchers have shown that both parents and educators affect teenagers’ academic achievements (Hashmi & Fayyaz, 2022) and behavioral adaptation (Huang et al., 2023). Goossens and van IJzendoorn (1990) built on attachment theory by suggesting that secure attachment bonds with parents and teachers have cumulative effects. While adolescents develop greater independence as they mature, their relationships with parents and teachers continue to play a significant role in providing guidance and support (R. Wang, 2021). A harmonious teacher–student relationship can ignite students’ interest and motivation in learning, compensate for poor parent–child relationships, mitigate negative family influences on academic performance (J. W. Chen et al., 2015), and promote autonomous learning (Nurmi, 2012). Therefore, we proposed the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2a: Teacher–student relationships will play a moderating role in the link between parent–child relationships and learning engagement.
Social capital theory emphasizes the importance of social connections and interactions at both individual and societal levels (Dubos, 2017). According to this theory, social capital accumulates through these connections and interactions, amplifying their positive effects. Studies have shown that teacher–student and parent–child relationships both contribute to the development of peer relationships (Zhao et al., 2021). Moreover, constructive teacher–student relationships can enhance the effect of parent–child relationships on peer relationships by providing additional social support and modeling appropriate social behaviors (X. X. Zhang et al., 2019). While researchers have found that teacher–student and peer relationships both positively predict learning engagement (Geng et al., 2023; Shao & Kang, 2022), teacher–student relationships can also enhance the protective effects of peer relationships on learning engagement (Vollet et al., 2017). Therefore, we proposed the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 2b: Teacher–student relationships will play a moderating role in the link between parent–child relationships and peer relationships.
Hypothesis 2c: Teacher–student relationships will play a moderating role in the link between peer relationships and learning engagement.
Overview of the Present Study
Although there is a growing body of research on the importance of students’ relationships with their parents, teachers, and peers, the interactions of these relationships and the effects they have on the learning engagement of high school students remain poorly understood. This study investigated the link between parent–child relationships and high school students’ learning engagement using a moderated mediation model. Our research model is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Proposed Moderated Mediation Model
Method
Participants and Procedure
The ethics review committee of Guangxi Normal University approved this study. We used random cluster sampling to recruit and administer anonymous self-report paper surveys to 707 high school students from four schools in Jiangsu Province, China. The school administrators informed the students about the study, and they joined on a voluntary basis. We distributed and collected the surveys within a 2-week period in October 2023, allowing students sufficient time to complete the survey at their convenience while also ensuring the data-collection process was efficient. After excluding incomplete or patterned surveys, we obtained 658 valid responses (effective response rate = 93.07%). Participants were in Grades 10, 11, and 12. There were 313 boys (47.53%) and 345 girls (52.47%) aged between 14 and 19 years (M = 16.30, SD = 1.07).
Measures
Parent–Child Relationships
To measure parent–child relationships, we used the 26-item Middle School Students’ Parent–Child Relationship Questionnaire designed by Wu et al. (2011). Items are rated using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). A sample item is “My parents like being with me.”
Peer Relationships
To measure peer relationships, we used the 22-item Peer Relationship Scale for Children and Adolescents designed by Guo (2004). Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). A sample item is “I desire a different group of classmates.”
Teacher–Student Relationships
To measure teacher–student relationships, we adopted the 22-item Teacher–Student Relationship Scale developed by L. Zhang (2003). Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). A sample item is “I like to take all teachers’ classes.”
Learning Engagement
To measure learning engagement, we used the Chinese version of the 22-item Learning Engagement Scale originally designed by Schaufeli et al. (2002) and later revised and translated into Chinese by Fang et al. (2008), which has been widely used in China with demonstrated reliability and validity. Items are rated on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree). A sample item is “I feel energetic when I study.”
Data Analysis
We used EpiData 3.1 to input our data and SPSS 27.0 for our analyses. To examine the mediating role of peer relationships and the moderating influence of teacher–student relationships, we used Models 4 and 59 of the PROCESS macro in SPSS 27.0 (Hayes, 2018) with 5,000 bootstrapped resamples.
Results
Preliminary Analyses
Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, and Pearson correlation coefficients for the main variables. The skewness and kurtosis of the data were within acceptable ranges, suggesting a normal distribution based on the threshold values proposed by West et al. (1995). Gender, age, and grade demonstrated no significant correlations with the study variables and thus were excluded from further analyses. Parent–child relationships were significantly correlated with peer relationships but not with teacher–student relationships. We found a significant correlation between peer relationships and teacher–student relationships.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics and Correlations of Study Variables
Note. N = 658. Gender was coded as a dummy variable: 0 = man and 1 = woman. Age was measured in years.
* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.
Mediation Effect Testing
We tested the mediation effects using Model 4 of the PROCESS macro for SPSS 27.0 (Hayes, 2018). Table 2 shows that there was a strong positive predictive effect of parent–child relationships on learning engagement, which remained significant even when accounting for peer relationships. In addition, parent–child relationships significantly predicted peer relationships, which, in turn, significantly predicted learning engagement. Peer relationships partially mediated this link, effect size = .234, 95% confidence interval (CI) [0.176, 0.293], constituting 51.0% of the total effect. This model explained 42.8% of the variance in learning engagement among high school students, supporting Hypothesis 1.
Table 2. Testing the Mediation Effect of Parent–Child Relationship on Learning Engagement
Note. * p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.
Moderated Mediation Effect Testing
We tested the moderated mediation effect using Model 59 of the PROCESS macro for SPSS 27.0 (Hayes, 2018). The results in Table 3 show that parent–child and teacher–student relationships significantly predicted learning engagement. In Model 1, the interaction between parent–child relationships and teacher–student relationships did not significantly predict learning engagement, 95% CI [–0.113, 0.013]. In Model 2, parent–child and teacher–student relationships independently positively predicted peer relationships, but their interaction did not, 95% CI [–0.039, 0.047]. In Model 3, parent–child and peer relationships positively predicted learning engagement, while the interaction between parent–child and teacher–student relationships negatively affected learning engagement, 95% CI [–0.131, –0.018]. Last, the interaction between peer and teacher–student relationships positively predicted learning engagement, 95% CI [0.033, 0.203], supporting teacher–student relationships as a moderating variable.
Table 3. Moderated Mediation Effect of Parent–Child Relationships on Learning Engagement
Note. * p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.
To better interpret the moderated mediation model, we categorized teacher–student relationships into strong (M + 1 SD) and weak (M – 1 SD) groups (Preacher et al., 2006). Table 4 shows the direct effect of parent–child relationships on high school students’ learning engagement, as well as the indirect effect mediated by peer relationships. We used simple slope tests to examine the specific moderating effects, as depicted in Figures 2 and 3. Figure 2 shows that parent–child relationships significantly predicted learning engagement under the condition of weaker teacher–student relationships, β = .323, t = 6.493, p < .001, compared to stronger teacher–student relationships, β = .145, t = 2.845, p < .01. Figure 3 shows that peer relationships significantly predicted learning engagement under both weak, β = .157, t = 11.492, p < .001, and strong, β = .235, t = 10.246, p < .001, teacher–student relationships. These results suggest that teacher–student relationships moderated both the direct effect of parent–child relationships on learning engagement and the indirect effect mediated by peer relationships, supporting Hypotheses 2a and 2c.
Table 4. Simple Slope of the Moderated Mediation Effect
Note. CI = confidence interval; LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit. 5,000 bootstrapped resamples were used.
Figure 2. Effect of the Interaction Between Parent–Child and Teacher–Student Relationships on Learning Engagement
Figure 3. Effect of the Interaction Between Peer and Teacher–Student Relationships on Learning Engagement
Discussion
Learning engagement holds significant implications for the goal orientation and future aspirations of high school students (M.-T. Wang & Hofkens, 2020). This study used a unique moderated mediation framework informed by developmental contextualism theory and attachment theory to examine how these relationships collectively shape learning engagement. The findings emphasized the complex interplay between different interpersonal relationships and their joint roles in academic development, supporting developmental contextualism perspectives.
The Mediating Role of Peer Relationships
In line with our first hypothesis and previous research findings (Oldfield et al., 2016), the results showed that peer relationships played a mediating role in the link between parent–child relationships and learning engagement. On one hand, the family represents the primary environment for adolescent growth. According to attachment theory, the internal schemas crafted when an individual forms a secure attachment with parents in early stages guide the establishment of subsequent relationships with peers (Bowlby, 1982). Jeynes (2007) and Steinberg (2001) built on attachment theory by showing that a harmonious family environment featuring quality parent–child relationships, stable emotional support, and positive learning models directly enhances teenagers’ learning attitudes and behaviors and subsequently their learning engagement. On the other hand, senior secondary school students are at a critical juncture of individual independence and socialization in which the influence of peers is becoming increasingly significant (Brown & Larson, 2009). In the context of this shifting social environment, positive parent–child relationships also develop social skills and self-confidence in adolescents, enabling them to establish favorable relationships within peer groups (Updegraff et al., 2001). These positive peer relationships, in turn, bolster high school students’ learning engagement as they derive learning resources and emotional support from their peers (M.-T. Wang et al., 2018). Therefore, peer relationships act as a pivotal bridge between parent–child relationships and learning engagement.
The Moderating Role of Teacher–Student Relationships
This study further examined the moderating role of teacher–student relationships in this mediation process. The results show that teacher–student relationships moderated both the direct path and the latter half of the mediation process, supporting Hypotheses 2a and 2c. These findings underscore the importance of teacher–student relationships in the learning engagement process and align with previous research emphasizing the protective function of teacher–student relationships in personal development and social acclimation (Sakiz et al., 2012). We find it interesting that favorable teacher–student relationships diminished the statistically significant and positive influence of parent–child relationships on learning engagement. Attachment theory may provide an explanation for this phenomenon, suggesting that any individuals who offer a sense of security and support could be considered as a secure base (Bowlby, 1982). Within a positive school environment, the support and care provided by teachers might serve as this secure base for students, thus reducing reliance on the family setting and relatively weakening the impact of parent–child relationships at home (Bergin & Bergin, 2009). Moreover, teacher–student relationships significantly moderated the predictive role of peer relationships on learning engagement. When teacher–student relationships were positive, the positive predictive role of peer relationships on learning engagement increased. This finding implies that positive teacher–student engagement increases students’ perception of heightened social support and positive interactions within the school context, which then foster the growth of peer relationships and boost learning engagement (Roorda et al., 2017).
However, we also found that teacher–student relationships did not significantly moderate the link between parent–child and peer relationships. This finding aligns with previous studies suggesting that while teacher–student relationships significantly impact students’ academic achievements and emotional growth, their capacity to moderate established relationship patterns within family and peer settings might be limited (Hughes & Kwok, 2007). This could be because the effect of parent–child relationships on peer relationships maintains its inherent stability throughout individual development, while the impact of teacher–student relationships predominantly manifests in domains directly related to learning engagement.
Theoretical Contributions
This study examined the associations between parent–child, peer, and teacher–student relationships and learning engagement among high school students. We found that these relationships were interdependent and dynamic, with peer relationships mediating the association between parent–child relationships and learning engagement. These findings provide empirical support for attachment theory while also expanding understanding of developmental contextualism theory by highlighting the differential predictive power of interpersonal relationships. The integration of multiple relationships enables a comprehensive view of their combined effects, providing a foundation for future research in different developmental stages and contexts. In addition, this study provides valuable cross-cultural insights by focusing on high school students in China, enriching the predominantly Western-focused literature.
Practical Implications
This study has practical implications for parents, educators, and policymakers. Considering these findings, we recommend that parents establish secure attachments during their child’s formative years, providing a stable foundation for growth. As the child progresses, parents should pay special attention to their child’s social interactions with their peers, encouraging their child to foster positive peer relationships. These findings also hold paramount importance for educational practices. We recommend that schools create environments that promote positive peer interactions and educators focus on cultivating and maintaining positive teacher–student relationships, since both relationships play significant roles in increasing students’ learning engagement. Strengthening communication and collaboration between teachers and parents will also help to collectively assist students in navigating interpersonal and psychological challenges and subsequently enhance their learning engagement. Last, we recommend that policymakers consider these findings when developing educational policies to address students’ comprehensive needs across family, peers, and school systems, as examining these relationships holistically when taking action will optimize their efforts to increase students’ learning engagement.
Limitations and Future Research Directions
This study has limitations. First, we collected data only through surveys. While surveys are reliable and valid, they may not capture the full spectrum of subjective experiences, particularly since high school students may have a social desirability bias, affecting data accuracy. Researchers could use diverse methods such as observations or interviews and survey more respondents in the future to obtain more accurate data. Furthermore, participants consisted only of high school students from Jiangsu Province, which may limit the applicability of the results to students of different age groups or those living in other countries or cultural settings. Future studies could include a more diverse sample to enhance the generalizability of the findings. In addition, we utilized a cross-sectional research design, which is unable to provide insights into student development over time. Future research utilizing longitudinal or experimental designs is necessary to establish causal relationships. Additional psychological mechanisms (e.g., resilience, mindfulness, growth mindset, and self-compassion) related to learning engagement through parent–child relationship could also be explored to enhance understanding of this topic.
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Figure 1. Proposed Moderated Mediation Model
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics and Correlations of Study Variables
Note. N = 658. Gender was coded as a dummy variable: 0 = man and 1 = woman. Age was measured in years.
* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.
Table 2. Testing the Mediation Effect of Parent–Child Relationship on Learning Engagement
Note. * p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.
Table 3. Moderated Mediation Effect of Parent–Child Relationships on Learning Engagement
Note. * p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.
Table 4. Simple Slope of the Moderated Mediation Effect
Note. CI = confidence interval; LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit. 5,000 bootstrapped resamples were used.
Figure 2. Effect of the Interaction Between Parent–Child and Teacher–Student Relationships on Learning Engagement
Figure 3. Effect of the Interaction Between Peer and Teacher–Student Relationships on Learning Engagement
This study was supported by the 2023 Philosophy and Social Science Research Project of Jiangsu Province Higher Education Institutions (2023SJYB0423) and the Nanjing Institute of Technology University-Level Scientific Research Start-Up Fund (YKJ202343).
Mengjun Zhu was responsible for conceptualization of the aims and hypotheses, database creation, and manuscript writing and revising, and is the joint first author. Xing’an Yao was responsible for data curation, formal analysis, funding acquisition, and manuscript writing, and is the joint first author. Mansor Abu Talib was responsible for conceptualization, review and editing of the manuscript, and supervision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The authors thank the study respondents.
The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and publication of this article.
The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding authors.
Xing’an Yao, School of Marxism, Nanjing Institute of Technology, No. 1 Hongjing Avenue, Jiangning Science Park, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China. Email: [email protected], or Mansor Abu Talib, Wellbeing Research Centre, Faculty of Social Sciences and Liberal Arts, UCSI University, No. 1, Jalan Menara Gading, UCSI Heights (Taman Connaught), Cheras 56000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Email: [email protected]
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