The hotels, airlines, and travel agencies that constitute the tourism industry are facing environmental changes, for example, instability in organizational composition (Lu et al., 2020; Stella et al., 2023). Moreover, constant change and innovation is required to respond to today’s super-competitive era and to promote growth (Gao, 2023; Lu et al., 2020; Stella et al., 2023; Wongyai et al., 2024). As Frey and Osborne (2017) predicted, new technologies such as digitalization and artificial intelligence are replacing a large portion of human jobs. Service robots equipped with artificial intelligence can provide various types of assistance and services, so they are considered (future) personnel that can reduce labor costs by replacing or supporting human workers in service fields (Osei et al., 2020; Pitardi et al., 2022).

 

Various technology-based services, for instance, hotel self-check-in/check-out systems, airlines’ mobile check-in kiosks, and travel agencies’ online services (Lu et al., 2020; Stella et al., 2023), have been introduced in the tourism industry to reduce constraints on travelers’ time and place. In the aviation industry, artificial intelligence has also been applied to computerizing and simplifying airline ground operations, resulting in efficient work-process changes. Customers can use self-service technology for reservations, ticketing, and boarding procedures, making airlines convenient and practical for travelers (Wongyai et al., 2024). Online travel agencies provide customers with a variety of information and product options, and customers who use smartphones can conduct searches, make bookings, and pay for products on an online travel agency’s mobile application more straightforwardly than on personal computers (Gao, 2023). As such, the scale of contactless services continues to expand, and the introduction of advanced technologies is rapidly progressing in line with changes in demand caused by COVID-19 and the need to reduce corporate labor costs (Jiang & Wen, 2020).

 

Technological advancements have also caused policy changes through diversification of various employment methods and employment types; as a result, employees experience job insecurity, for instance, loss of control and increased concern about job retention (Elife & Baki, 2023). Furthermore, as job insecurity increases, the association between insecurity and health can have a serious mental effect (Elife & Baki, 2023). Therefore, researchers have studied whether employees’ negative psychology and job insecurity affect work–family conflict. In previous studies the responses to job insecurity included emotional burnout (Cheng & McCarthy, 2018; Lin et al., 2021; McCarthy et al., 2016), job stress (Jiménez et al., 2017; Reichert & Tauchmann, 2017; Shoss et al., 2018), psychological contract violations (Arshadi & Damiri, 2013; Jou et al., 2013), and work–family conflict (Fu & Shaffer, 2001; Hall et al., 2010; Richter et al., 2010; Sahibzada, 2006). Because factors that can significantly affect employees’ behavior include job insecurity (Elife & Baki, 2023), the need for effective human resource management continues to be argued (Lee, 2023). However, prior studies have not examined the effects of technological advancement, negative psychological factors, and work–family conflict on job insecurity. 

 

Technological development is altering the tourism industry, requiring employees to acquire and successfully apply new skills. Thus, technological development is expected to form a significant factor influencing job insecurity (Pencarelli, 2020). However, there has been little research on the impact of job insecurity, in particular with respect to the onset of technological development, leading to negative psychological factors including emotional exhaustion, job stress, and psychological contract violations. This empirical study presented a new perspective by exploring the relationship between job insecurity and negative psychological factors with respect to technological development. In particular, taking into account that technological development can enhance work efficiency and productivity while blurring the boundaries between work and family, we examined whether job insecurity and negative psychological factors resulting from technological development intensified work–family conflict. We sought to identify implications for human resource management in tourism companies through highlighting job insecurity resulting from technological development.

Job insecurity is an employee’s concern about the future of the workplace (Keim et al., 2014) and a perceived threat to the continuity and stability of their employment based on current experience (Shoss, 2017), that is, the possibility of losing their job (Elife & Baki, 2023). Research on job insecurity continues to become more systematic through theoretical and empirical studies (Y. Shin & Hur, 2021). Job insecurity measures an individual’s perception and, more generally, environmental concerns, making it a multidimensional construct (Ashford et al., 1989; Greenhalgh & Rosenblatt, 1984; H.-C. Shin, 2019; Y. Shin & Hur, 2021). Recent job-insecurity studies have focused on technology cooperation (Behaghel & Moschion, 2016) and technological advancement (Y. Shin & Hur, 2021).

 

Negative psychological factors comprise various negative emotions caused by internal and external psychological experiences (Bhowmik et al., 2023), although the use of this term varies considerably from researcher to researcher (Oliver, 2010; Robbins et al., 2013). Alongside a company’s technological advancement, employees experience amplified anxiety and a lack of perceived safety about their job, possibly leading to negative psychological factors (Lin et al., 2021; Pencarelli, 2020). Organizations that suddenly modify management strategies or make changes cause job insecurity (Lin et al., 2021), directly affecting the organization’s atmosphere and enhancing employees’ negative psychological factors (Arshadi & Damiri, 2013; Cheng & McCarthy, 2018; Jiménez et al., 2017; Jou et al., 2013; Lin et al., 2021; McCarthy et al., 2016; Reichert & Tauchmann, 2017; Shoss et al., 2018).

 

Negative psychological factors can result in stress, exhaustion, and corporate loss due to employees’ decreased motivation to work (Arnold et al., 2015). Among the negative psychological factors, emotional exhaustion, job stress, and psychological contract violations are central. First, emotional exhaustion is an individual’s psychological and mental exhaustion, as distinguished from tension (i.e., a short-term response to stress due to physical and emotional exhaustion syndrome), including negative self-concept, a negative attitude toward one’s job, and loss of interest in or feelings toward clients (Pines & Keinan, 2005). Second, job stress is an employee’s perception of the workplace environment’s emotionally and physically threatening characteristics (Ratnaningrum et al., 2023). These job stresses correspond to a mutual stimulus–response approach, forming a series of physiological, psychological, and behavioral responses as one or more stress factors continue to affect the employee (Yan & Xie, 2016). Third, psychological contract violations provide a basic framework for understanding employment relations by defining the exchange relationship between the organization and its members as the consistency of obligations and rewards employees perceive to maintain balance (Maguire, 2003). Employment relations in psychological contract violations can be explained by asking how the organization’s members perceive and respond to such violations (Wilkinson-Ryan, 2012). Unless members’ emotional exhaustion is addressed, it persists at home (Demerouti et al., 2004; Thompson et al., 2005; Wagner et al., 2014). Changes in the organization’s workflow lead to decreased concentration on work and family life as negative psychological conditions and job stress increase (Fu & Shaffer, 2001). The more difficult it is to harmonize with the organization and its members, the more common it becomes for individuals to violate psychological contracts with the company, eventually leading to difficulty balancing work and family (Agarwal et al., 2024; Liang, 2019).

 

Most people today play two roles, as family members and office workers—but, in reality, balancing work and family is challenging and conflicts arise (Ratnaningrum et al., 2023). Work–family conflict describes the friction that occurs when work encroaches on the home environment (Ratnaningrum et al., 2023). Emotional exhaustion, job stress, and psychological contract violations directly affect work–family conflict, which creates personal disharmony (Demerouti et al., 2004; Fu & Shaffer, 2001; Thompson et al., 2005; Wagner et al., 2014). Members of an organization generally reject changes in its internal structure. At the same time, job insecurity induces negative emotions in the workplace and at home (Sahibzada, 2006). Psychological pressure results from an income change, along with the risk of curtailed career development and changes in status or authority (Richter et al., 2010). Moreover, when employees have no faith in the organization and are stressed, this can cause fatigue, tension, anxiety, and disappointment, and thereby increase their dissatisfaction in daily life (Keim et al., 2014). Thus, we proposed the following hypotheses and the research model shown in Figure 1:

Hypothesis 1: Job insecurity resulting from technological advancement will have a positive effect on work–family conflict.

Hypothesis 2: Job insecurity resulting from technological advancement will have a positive effect on negative psychological factors.

Hypothesis 3: Negative psychological factors will have a positive effect on work–family conflict.

Hypothesis 4: Job insecurity resulting from technological advancement will have a positive effect on work–family conflict through the mediator of negative psychological factors.

We conducted an online survey through Google Forms from February 1–28, 2023, using snowball sampling. The research purpose and methods were explained and informed consent was obtained, then a link to the survey was provided to employees of tourism companies (hotels, travel agencies, and airlines) across South Korea using the KakaoTalk online messenger. Participation was wholly voluntary and the participants could discontinue the survey at any time. No reward was provided for participation. Anonymity was ensured.

 

We collected 326 valid responses for empirical analysis. The respondents comprised 135 (41.4%) men and 191 (58.6%) women. In terms of age, 106 respondents (32.5%) were in their 20s, 127 (39.0%) were in their 30s, 63 (19.3%) were in their 40s, and 30 (9.2%) were in their 50s or older. As regards educational background, 67 (20.6%) had a high school diploma or lower level of education, 49 (15.0%) had an associate’s degree, 109 (59.2%) had a 4-year bachelor’s degree, and 17 (5.2%) had a postgraduate degree or higher level of education. In terms of job tenure, 71 (21.8%) had held their position for less than 1 year, 62 (19.0%) for 1–3 years, 53 (16.3%) for 4–5 years, 72 (22.1%) for 6–10 years, and 68 (20.9%) for over 10 years. Finally, 233 (71.5%) were permanent employees and 93 (28.5%) had other types of employment contracts.

All scales were translated from English to Korean. Specialists in English participated in the translation process, and an airline employee, a travel-agency employee, and a hotel employee reviewed the items to ensure they fit the organizational characteristics of the tourism industry. All items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = not at all to 5 = very much).

 

We measured job insecurity with 11 items from previous studies (Ashford et al., 1989; Greenhalgh & Rosenblatt, 1984; H.-C. Shin, 2019). The dimension of pay precarity was measured using four items, for example, “There is a possibility of job-reduction measures due to technological advances” and “Technology advances may increase the pressure to take early retirement.” The dimension of employment instability was measured by four items, for example, “Performance at work is diversifying with the development of technology” and “It is not easy to maintain my current work position within the company due to the development of technology.” The dimension of uncontrollable environment was measured with three items, for example, “I cannot prevent technological advances from negatively affecting my job” and “It is not possible to control the working environment that is affecting my job through technological advances.”

 

We measured negative psychological factors with 15 items from previous studies (Hunter & Thatcher, 2007; Maslach, 1982; Morrison & Robinson, 1997). The dimension of emotional exhaustion was measured with five items, for example, “I feel like I don’t want to do anything” and “I feel mentally tired of doing my job.” The dimension of job stress was measured with five items, for example, “I feel pressured to perform well at my job” and “I feel anxious about performing well at my job.” The dimension of psychological contract violation was measured with five items, for example, “I am not receiving pay corresponding to my efforts” and “I feel that the company is not likely to keep its promises to employees.”

 

We measured work–family conflict with four items sourced from previous studies (Carlson et al., 2000; Haslam et al., 2015; Mesmer-Magnus & Viswesvaran, 2005). Sample items are “I am often angry at home because of my job” and “Immersion in my job is negatively affecting my family relationships.”

We used SPSS 27.0 and Amos 27.0 for data analysis. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the relationships between job insecurity, negative psychological factors, and work–family conflict.

Results of a confirmatory factor analysis conducted to assess the study’s structural validity are presented in Table 1. We converted the concepts composed of secondary factors into measurement variables by averaging the measurement concept’s subvariables. The three-factor model (i.e., job insecurity resulting from technological advancement, negative psychological factors, and work–family conflict) showed a good fit to the data, χ² = 109.28, df = 31, p < .01, minimum discrepancy/df = 3.52, root-mean-square residual = .01, goodness-of-fit index = .93, adjusted goodness-of-fit index = .89, normed fit index = .95, comparative fit index = .97, root-mean-square error of approximation = .08. In addition, the standardized factor loadings were .50 or higher, and composite reliability was statistically significant (≥ .70; Hair, 1998). Cronbach’s alpha, which measures the internal consistency of each variable, ranged between .85 and .93 (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994).

Table 2 shows the results of a discriminant validity analysis. The average variance extracted values were greater than the squared correlation coefficients between variables, indicating strong discriminant validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

Table 3 displays the results of hypothesis verification via structural equation modeling using Amos 27.0. Job insecurity resulting from technological advancement did not have a positive effect on work–family conflict; thus, Hypothesis 1 was not supported. Job insecurity resulting from technological advancement had a positive effect on negative psychological factors; thus, Hypothesis 2 was supported. Negative psychological factors had a positive effect on work–family conflict; thus, Hypothesis 3 was supported. A bootstrapping analysis with 500 resamples and 95% confidence intervals showed that negative psychological factors fully mediated the relationship between job insecurity and work–family conflict; thus, Hypothesis 4 was supported.

Human resource management is more necessary than ever to prevent job insecurity resulting from rapid changes in the tourism industry. Specifically, companies’ organized response, voluntary participation, and dedicated efforts are required to reduce job insecurity (J. Shin & Shin, 2020). Hence, this study gathered data on human resource management and tourism companies’ development to examine the relationships among job insecurity resulting from technological advancement, negative psychological factors, and work–family conflict perceived by tourism employees.

 

We found that perceived job insecurity resulting from technological advancement had a nonsignificant direct effect but a significant indirect effect on work–family conflict through the mediator of negative psychological factors, supporting the results of previous studies (Richter et al., 2010; Sahibzada, 2006; J. Shin & Shin, 2020). Job insecurity can contribute to work–family conflict through negative psychological factors and varies in relation to different variables, such as individual disposition, level of support from family members, and organizational support policy. In other words, employment insecurity does not directly cause work–family conflict, but it can, in concert with other factors, affect it. This is because job insecurity has a stronger on negative psychological factors than does work–family conflict. Nevertheless, our correlation analysis revealed a positive correlation between job insecurity and work–family conflict.

 

Next, we found that the job insecurity perceived by tourism employees affected their negative psychological factors, which aligns with previous study results (Arshadi & Damiri, 2013; Cheng & McCarthy, 2018; Jiménez et al., 2017; Jou et al., 2013; Lin et al., 2021; McCarthy et al., 2016; Reichert & Tauchmann, 2017; Shoss et al., 2018). Thus, job insecurity resulting from technological development can lead to uncertainty and anxiety in the work environment, which impinges upon the psychological stability of tourism employees and leads to negative emotions. In particular, employment insecurity is closely related to employees’ economic stability, which can lead to financial burdens or anxiety. Therefore, negative psychological factors can be strengthened and induced in employees.

 

Finally, supporting the results of previous studies, we found that individuals’ negative psychological factors directly affected their experience of work–family conflict (Fu & Shaffer, 2001; Hall et al., 2010). Technological development has brought many changes to the tourism industry, leading to new challenges and opportunities for tourism employees. As technological advances are making the work environment more complex and work requirements are increasing, tourism employees may experience negative psychological factors, such as emotional exhaustion, job stress, and psychological contract violations, which lead to conflict between individuals’ work and family responsibilities.

This study is an initial effort to guide human resource management in an industry highly dependent on human resources in the incorporation of technological advances after the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Rotatori et al., 2021). Many scholars have investigated various factors that explain how tourism companies’ job insecurity influences employees’ negative psychological factors and work–family conflict (Elife & Baki, 2023). However, studies investigating this issue that have incorporated technological development are insufficient. Unlike previous studies, which focused on employees’ emotions, this study specifically explored employees’ perception of job insecurity resulting from technological development. We found that this affected employees’ negative psychological factors and work–family conflict, potentially leading to decreased job performance. These results are significant for understanding human resource management theory in that they incorporate various aspects of technology’s emergence to explain organizational evaluation and employee behavior.

To alleviate the job insecurity caused by technological development, organizations should provide appropriate education and training to their employees and improve their work environment (Cloete, 2017). This can minimize the negative psychological factors of employees and reduce work–family conflict. Organizations should also introduce policies such as flexible working hours and telecommuting systems (Burchell et al., 2001; Lee, 2023) to distribute the burden of work, taking into account the psychological stability of employees and bringing work and family life together harmoniously. It is important to manage and improve negative psychological factors to alleviate the job insecurity of tourism workers due to technological development. We recommend introducing a program that reduces job stress and emotional exhaustion, and educates employees on how to manage job stress. Further, organizations should work to minimize job insecurity and negative psychological factors among employees and should create an environment to resolve work–family conflict. This will make it possible to improve organizational performance while enhancing employees’ job satisfaction and productivity.

This study’s limitations are as follows: First, the sample included only employees of tourism companies. Because hotels, travel agencies, and airline companies use different workforce substitution technologies, their employees’ perceived job insecurity likely differs. For this reason, it is necessary to measure how job instability due to technological development varies across specific types of tourism companies. Second, this study focused on South Korea. Comparative studies of job insecurity and negative psychological factors among tourism employees across multiple countries and cultures would lead to a broader perspective. Finally, research on tourism job insecurity, specifically in hotels, travel agencies, and airlines, because of rapid technological advancements during the Fourth Industrial Revolution, is in its early stages. Future studies could further explore this topic.

In the tourism industry, which has high-frequency contact with customers, employees have core competencies and are assets that give the company a competitive advantage. This study examined the impact of job insecurity according to changes in the technology environment on tourism employees’ negative psychological factors and work–family conflicts. The results show that job insecurity had both a direct and indirect positive effect on negative psychological factors and work–family conflict, thus indicating human resource management’s need to reduce job insecurity. Overall, this study makes a valuable contribution to the advancement of human resource management theory by examining the impact of job insecurity on negative psychological factors and work–family conflict.

Agarwal, U. A., Baral, R., & Rastogi, M. (2024). Work–family conflict and work engagement among construction professionals: Role of psychological contract breach and gender. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management. Advance online publication.

 

Arnold, K. A., Connelly, C. E., Walsh, M. M., & Martin Ginis, K. A. (2015). Leadership styles, emotion regulation, and burnout. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 20(4), 481–490.

 

Arshadi, N., & Damiri, H. (2013). The relationship of job stress with turnover intention and job performance: Moderating role of OBSE. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 84, 706–710.

 

Ashford, S. J., Lee, C., & Bobko, P. (1989). Content, cause, and consequences of job insecurity: A theory-based measure and substantive test. Academy of Management Journal, 32(4), 803–829.

 

Behaghel, L., & Moschion, J. (2016). IT‐based technical change and job instability. The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 118(1), 79–104.

 

Bhowmik, T., Majumdar, S., Choudhury, A., Banerjee, A., & Roy, B. (2023). Importance of internal and external psychological factors in digital learning. In A. Choudhury, A. Biswas, & S. Chakraborti (Eds.), Digital learning based education: Transcending physical barriers (pp. 119–132). Springer Singapore.

 

Burchell, B., Ladipo, D., & Wilkinson, F. (Eds.). (2001). Job insecurity and work intensification. Routledge.

 

Carlson, D. S., Kacmar, K. M., & Williams, L. J. (2000). Construction and initial validation of a multidimensional measure of work–family conflict. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 56(2), 249–276.

 

Cheng, B. H., & McCarthy, J. M. (2018). Understanding the dark and bright sides of anxiety: A theory of workplace anxiety. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(5), 537–560.

 

Cloete, A. L. (2017). Technology and education: Challenges and opportunities. HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies, 73(3), Article a4589.

 

Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., & Bulters, A. J. (2004). The loss spiral of work pressure, work–home interference and exhaustion: Reciprocal relations in a three-wave study. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 64(1), 131–149.

 

Elife, K., & Baki, A. E. (2023). New technologies and labor market: A look into the future of jobs and employment. Социология науки и технологий, 14(2), 194–208.

 

Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50.

 

Frey, C. B., & Osborne, M. A. (2017). The future of employment: How susceptible are jobs to computerisation? Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 114, 254–280.

 

Fu, C. K., & Shaffer, M. A. (2001). The tug of work and family: Direct and indirect domain‐specific determinants of work‐family conflict. Personnel Review, 30(5), 502–522.

 

Gao, H., & Zhan, M. (2023). Understanding factors influencing click-through decision in mobile OTA search engine systems. Journal of Theoretical and Applied Electronic Commerce Research, 18(1), 634–655.

 

Greenhalgh, L., & Rosenblatt, Z. (1984). Job insecurity: Toward conceptual clarity. The Academy of Management Review, 9(3), 438–448.

 

Hair, J. F., Jr. (1998). Multivariate data analysis with readings. Prentice Hall.

 

Hall, G. B., Dollard, M. F., Tuckey, M. R., Winefield, A. H., & Thompson, B. M. (2010). Job demands, work‐family conflict, and emotional exhaustion in police officers: A longitudinal test of competing theories. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83(1), 237–250.

 

Haslam, D., Filus, A., Morawska, A., Sanders, M. R., & Fletcher, R. (2015). The Work–Family Conflict Scale (WAFCS): Development and initial validation of a self-report measure of work–family conflict for use with parents. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 46(3), 346–357.

 

Hunter, L. W., & Thatcher, S. M. B. (2007). Feeling the heat: Effects of stress, commitment, and job experience on job performance. Academy of Management Journal, 50(4), 953–968.

 

Jiang, Y., & Wen, J. (2020). Effects of COVID-19 on hotel marketing and management: A perspective article. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 32(8), 2563–2573.

 

Jiménez, P., Milfelner, B., Žižek, S. Š., & Dunkl, A. (2017). Moderating effects between job insecurity and intention to quit in samples of Slovene and Austrian workers. Naše Gospodarstvo, 63(1), 27–37.

 

Jou, R.-C., Kuo, C.-W., & Tang, M.-L. (2013). A study of job stress and turnover tendency among air traffic controllers: The mediating effects of job satisfaction. Transportation Research Part E, 57, 95–104.

 

Keim, A. C., Landis, R. S., Pierce, C. A., & Earnest, D. R. (2014). Why do employees worry about their jobs? A meta-analytic review of predictors of job insecurity. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 19(3), 269–290.

 

Lee, J. H. (2023). A study on human resource management and development of tourism companies: Focusing on job competency (Unpublished doctoral dissertation) [In Korean]. Kyonggi University.

 

Liang, H.-L. (2019). Are emotions transmitted from work to family? A crossover model of psychological contract breach. Psychological Reports, 122(1), 288–304.

 

Lin, W., Shao, Y., Li, G., Guo, Y., & Zhan, X. (2021). The psychological implications of COVID-19 on employee job insecurity and its consequences: The mitigating role of organization adaptive practices. Journal of Applied Psychology, 106(3), 317–329.

 

Lu, V. N., Wirtz, J., Kunz, W. H., Paluch, S., Gruber, T., Martins, A., & Patterson, P. G. (2020). Service robots, customers and service employees: What can we learn from the academic literature and where are the gaps? Journal of Service Theory and Practice, 30(3), 361–391.

 

Maguire, H. (2003). The changing psychological contract: Challenges and implications for HRM, organisations and employees (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Southern Queensland.

 

Maslach, C. (1982). Burnout: The cost of caring. Prentice Hall.

 

McCarthy, J. M., Trougakos, J. P., & Cheng, B. H. (2016). Are anxious workers less productive workers? It depends on the quality of social exchange. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101(2), 279–291.

 

Mesmer-Magnus, J. R., & Viswesvaran, C. (2005). Convergence between measures of work-to-family and family-to-work conflict: A meta-analytic examination. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 67(2), 215–232.

 

Morrison, E. W., & Robinson, S. L. (1997). When employees feel betrayed: A model of how psychological contract violation develops. The Academy of Management Review, 22(1), 226–256.

 

Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). The assessment of reliability. Psychometric Theory, 3, 248–292.

 

Oliver, R. L. (2010). Satisfaction: A behavioral perspective on the consumer. Routledge.

 

Osei, B. A., Ragavan, N. A., & Mensah, H. K. (2020). Prospects of the Fourth Industrial Revolution for the hospitality industry: A literature review. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology, 11(3), 479–494.

 

Pencarelli, T. (2020). The digital revolution in the travel and tourism industry. Information Technology and Tourism, 22(3), 455–476.

 

Pines, A. M., & Keinan, G. (2005). Stress and burnout: The significant difference. Personality and Individual Differences, 39(3), 625–635.

 

Pitardi, V., Wirtz, J., Paluch, S., & Kunz, W. H. (2022). Service robots, agency and embarrassing service encounters. Journal of Service Management, 33(2), 389–414.

 

Ratnaningrum, R., Purwadi, T., Susilowati, H., Hargyatni, T., & Widyaningsih, D. (2023). Job insecurity, work stress, work family conflict, and employees turnover intention. International Journal of Economics, Business and Innovation Research, 2(3), 77–95.

 

Reichert, A. R., & Tauchmann, H. (2017). Workforce reduction, subjective job insecurity, and mental health. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 133, 187–212.

 

Richter, A., Näswall, K., & Sverke, M. (2010). Job insecurity and its relation to work—family conflict: Mediation with a longitudinal data set. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 31(2), 265–280.

 

Robbins, S. P., Judge, T. A., Millett, B., & Boyle, M. (2013). Organizational behavior. Prentice Hall.

 

Rotatori, D., Lee, E. J., & Sleeva, S. (2021). The evolution of the workforce during the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Human Resource Development International, 24(1), 92–103.

 

Sahibzada, K. (2006). Job insecurity and work-family conflict: The organizational, situational, and individual influences on the job strain process (Unpublished master’s thesis). Portland State University.

 

Shin, H.-C. (2019). The relationship between psychological contract breach and job insecurity or stress in employees engaged in the restaurant business. Sustainability, 11(20), Article 5709.

 

Shin, J., & Shin, H. (2020). Impact of job insecurity on hotel workers’ workaholism and work–family conflict in Korea. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(21), Article 7783.

 

Shin, Y., & Hur, W.-M. (2021). When do job-insecure employees keep performing well? The buffering roles of help and prosocial motivation in the relationship between job insecurity, work engagement, and job performance. Journal of Business and Psychology, 36(4), 659–678.

 

Shoss, M. K. (2017). Job insecurity: An integrative review and agenda for future research. Journal of Management, 43(6), 1911–1939.

 

Shoss, M. K., Jiang, L., & Probst, T. M. (2018). Bending without breaking: A two-study examination of employee resilience in the face of job insecurity. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 23(1), 112–126.

 

Stella, F., Della Santina, C., & Hughes, J. (2023). How can LLMs transform the robotic design process? Nature Machine Intelligence, 5(6), 561–564.

 

Thompson, B. M., Kirk, A., & Brown, D. F. (2005). Work based support, emotional exhaustion, and spillover of work stress to the family environment: A study of policewomen. Stress & Health, 21(3), 199–207.

 

Wagner, D. T., Barnes, C. M., & Scott, B. A. (2014). Driving it home: How workplace emotional labor harms employee home life. Personnel Psychology, 67(2), 487–516.

 

Wilkinson-Ryan, T. (2012). Legal promise and psychological contract. Wake Forest Law Review, 47, 843–873.

 

Wongyai, P. H., Ngo, T., Wu, H., Tsui, K. W. H., & Nguyen, T.-H. (2024). Self-service technology in aviation: A systematic literature review. Journal of the Air Transport Research Society, 2, Article 100016.

 

Yan, H., & Xie, S. (2016). How does auditors’ work stress affect audit quality? Empirical evidence from the Chinese stock market. China Journal of Accounting Research, 9(4), 305–319.