Collegiate taekwondo teams face the enduring challenge of nurturing individual growth while simultaneously ensuring the sustainable development of the team (M.-E. Park & Byon, 2024). The pivotal factor in this dynamic is the quality of interactions between athletes and coaches (Min, 2022). Positive and high-quality interactions establish supportive team environments, empowering athletes’ mental and physical development and contributing to team growth (S.-J. Lee, 2023). Leadership within collegiate taekwondo teams, particularly transformational leadership, is pivotal in shaping athlete performance and personal growth, and unlocking their potential (Cheo & Jung, 2020).

 

A transformational leadership style, characterized by charisma, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration, stands out for its emphasis on inspiring and motivating individuals toward achieving specific goals (Alzoraiki et al., 2023; Bass & Avolio, 1994). In the context of college teams transitioning from a hierarchical to a horizontal relationship between coaches and athletes, transformational leadership emerges as an effective leadership style, particularly in a sport like taekwondo, where a combination of physical and mental strength is crucial (Judge & Piccolo, 2004; Kim & Kim, 2002; Min, 2022).

 

Moreover, trust, which is essential for interpersonal dynamics, involves an individual’s willingness to embrace vulnerability and place belief in another party (Mayer et al., 1995). Supervisory trust, as proposed by Johnson-George and Swap (1982), reflects followers’ deep reliance on leaders, fostering a mutually beneficial emotional state and contributing to organizational innovation and employee well-being (Dayan et al., 2009). Transformational leaders, known for their benevolence and consideration of individual needs, cultivate trust by aligning their behavior with key trustworthiness components (Cho et al., 2017; Wang & Howell, 2010). Research has highlighted the significant effect of transformational leadership on leader trust and employee satisfaction, with trust playing a crucial mediating role (Liu et al., 2010; Prikshat et al., 2021). In sports settings, transformational leaders employ charisma and motivation to build trust among athletes, with empirical evidence consistently affirming the positive association between transformational leadership and leader trust (Cheo & Jung, 2020; Kim & Kim, 2002).

 

Employing mechanisms such as inspiration, support, meaningful challenges, optimism, and role-model behavior, transformational leaders establish an environment that fosters deep involvement and strong task identification among followers (Alzoraiki et al., 2023; Manzoor et al., 2019). Research has consistently highlighted the positive relationship between transformational leadership and follower performance. For instance, Alzoraiki et al. (2023) observed a beneficial influence on job performance among public school teachers, with commitment mediating this effect. Thompson et al. (2021) demonstrated that charisma, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration within transformational leadership significantly predict employee performance, establishing this as a driving force for organizational achievement. In the sports domain, empirical studies have illuminated the association between transformational leadership and perceived performance, representing athletes’ subjective evaluation of their own performance. Won and Choi (2019) examined team cohesiveness and performance among Korean handball athletes, revealing transformational leadership had a strong influence on this relationship. Jin and Lee (2022) affirmed the positive effects of this leadership style on leader trust and perceived performance among taekwondo athletes, emphasizing the transformative role of leaders in building trust and enhancing performance perceptions. These findings underscore the pivotal role of transformational leadership in organizational and sports contexts.

 

Trust in a leader influences the job performance of organizational members, with Mayer et al. (1995) having identified ability, benevolence, and integrity as critical components of perceived trustworthiness. In the organizational context, members seek excellence in their work and the respect and support of peers (Gagné & Deci, 2005). As influential figures, leaders can meet these needs by consistently showcasing competence and providing support, cultivating trust among followers, and ultimately enhancing work performance. In the sports realm, trust in a leader is equally crucial for shaping athletes’ perceived performance (Yu & Yang, 2022). The level of trust athletes place in their leaders significantly influences their self-assessment of performance and accomplishments, suggesting that trust can positively affect athletes’ subjective evaluations, potentially influencing overall sporting achievements (Yu & Yang, 2022). Empirical research has consistently found a positive relationship between leader trust and perceived athletic performance. For instance, J. Park et al. (2022) identified significant positive links between leader trust, exercise commitment, and demonstration performance ratings in Korean taekwondo demonstration teams. Similarly, D. Lee and Hwang (2018) discovered a positive association between trust in team leaders and perceived athletic performance among high school athletes. These findings highlight that athletes who trust their leaders are more inclined to have a positive perception of their athletic performance.

 

Meanwhile, leader trust is a pivotal mediator linking transformational leadership to members’ performance in organizational contexts. Transformational leaders cultivate trust through commitments to follower development, intellectual stimulation, and individual recognition (Wang & Howell, 2010). Chun et al. (2009) and Walumbwa et al. (2005) underscored these leaders’ genuine understanding of individual followers’ needs, fostering confidence and motivation for task engagement and pursuit of organizational goals. This heightened trust acts as a catalyst, amplifying the positive influence of transformational leadership on performance, thereby positioning leader trust as a crucial mediator in translating leadership behaviors into meaningful outcomes. In sports settings, limited empirical research has shown that leader trust is vital in mediating the link between transformational leadership and perceived performance. For instance, Kim and Kim (2002) studied Korean high school and college athletes, and revealed that leader trust partially mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and perceived athletic performance. Similarly, Kang (2010) explored the relationships among transformational leadership, leader trust, and perceived performance in soccer players, and identified leader trust as a mediating factor. These studies suggest that trust partially mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and perceived performance in sports settings.

 

Previous research has extensively examined the effect of transformational leadership across various domains, yet there remains a significant research gap regarding university taekwondo teams. While prior studies (Kang, 2010; Kim & Kim, 2002) in the sports domain have examined the relationship between transformational leadership and sports behaviors, their predominant focus has been on team sports, like soccer. In individual sports, such as taekwondo, athletes prioritize personal performance, with management and training tailored to their specific needs, whereas in team sports, personal training yields collective training and team performance (B.-S. Lee et al., 2021). As a result, the coach–athlete relationship assumes greater significance in individual sports, where leaders must cater to each athlete’s unique physical and psychological traits to optimize performance. This dynamic underscores a leadership approach characterized by intimacy and personalization, which is distinct from the leadership dynamics observed in team sports. To fill this gap in the literature, this study investigated the effect of transformational leadership on perceived performance in university taekwondo athletes and examined the mediating role of leader trust. We formulated the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1: Transformational leadership will positively predict leader trust among university taekwondo athletes.

Hypothesis 2: There will be a positive relationship between transformational leadership and perceived performance among university taekwondo athletes.

Hypothesis 3: Leader trust will have a positive influence on perceived performance among university taekwondo athletes.

Hypothesis 4: Leader trust will mediate the relationship between transformational leadership and perceived performance among university taekwondo athletes.

 

The research model is presented in Figure 1.

This study administered a survey to taekwondo athletes from six South Korean universities in Seoul and Busan between March and April 2023. Prior to data collection, we contacted the coaches and managers of the taekwondo teams from the participating universities, seeking their collaboration and engagement in the study. We thoroughly explained the study’s objectives and data-collection process through telephone discussions. Upon confirmation of participation, we personally visited each team. Prior to their training sessions, we held a meeting to present the study’s purpose and address any concerns regarding voluntary participation among the athletes. Written consent was obtained from all participants.

 

We employed a self-administered survey method for data collection. Participants completed questionnaires independently and we collected the forms promptly to ensure data integrity. Of 221 surveys we collected, two contained duplicated or incomplete responses; thus, the final sample comprised 219 participants, including 136 (62.3%) men and 83 (37.7%) women. In terms of age, 153 (69.9%) were 20 years old, 37 (16.9%) were 21 years old, 18 (8.2%) were 22 years old, and 11 (5.0%) were 19 years old (see Table 1).

Data for this study were gathered through a survey comprising 20 items, including demographic characteristics such as gender, age, university grade, length of training, and type of competition. The survey items were adapted from previously validated studies. To ensure content validity, we held a consensus meeting with a panel of two sport psychology and management professors and two general managers from the university taekwondo teams. The purpose of the meeting was to thoroughly review and evaluate the questionnaire items, with a specific focus on aspects such as language, sentence clarity, and potential word ambiguity. Furthermore, we conducted a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and reliability tests to validate and assess the reliability of the questionnaire. All items except demographic characteristics were rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

 

We assessed transformational leadership with the Transformational Leadership Scale, originally developed in English by Carless et al. (2000). Oh and Yoo (2022) translated this scale into Korean, demonstrating its reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .97. After a primary CFA, the item “My coach encourages thinking about problems in new ways and questions assumptions” was excluded due to its standardized coefficient value falling below .50, and six items were retained.

 

We assessed leader trust with the Leader Trust Scale developed by J. Lee et al. (2016), which had a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .84. After a primary CFA, the item “My coach exhibits sound judgment” was excluded due to its standardized coefficient value falling below .50, and five items were retained.

 

We evaluated perceived performance among college taekwondo athletes with Ban’s (2022) Perceived Performance Scale, which had a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .91. Following a primary CFA, the items “My performance meets expectations” and “My performance is steadily improving” were excluded due to their standardized coefficient values falling below .50, and four items were retained.

 

 

We used SPSS 23.0 and Amos 23.0 for descriptive analysis, reliability analysis, CFA, and structural equation modeling (SEM). Descriptive analysis provided insights into central tendency and variability. Reliability analysis assessed internal consistency and item reliability. Using maximum likelihood estimation, we conducted a CFA to evaluate the measures’ psychometric properties, including model fit, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and reliability. We used SEM to test the research hypotheses, examine the relationships among the variables, and validate the proposed theoretical model.

The descriptive statistical analyses showed the skewness values ranged between −0.85 and −1.46, and kurtosis values ranged between 1.26 and 1.58, all of which are within the acceptable ranges (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Significant correlations were observed among the variables, ranging between .47 and .56 (p < .01). Mean scores for the variables ranged between 3.18 and 4.15, and standard deviations ranged between 0.50 and 0.62. Assessment of multicollinearity through tolerance (0.71) and variance inflation factor (1.39) values revealed no concerns (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Table 2 presents detailed descriptive statistics and correlation analysis results.

Table 3 presents the results of assessment of the measurement model, evaluating the reliability and validity of indicators for the constructs in our research model. The fit indices, χ² = 190.53 (df = 87, p < .001), goodness-of-fit index = .90, comparative fit index = .92, Tucker–Lewis index = .90, standardized root-mean-square residual = .05, root-mean-square error of approximation = .07, indicated a satisfactory to the data (Hair et al., 1998). Convergent validity was confirmed by acceptable composite reliability values (.86–.92) and average variance extracted (AVE) values (.56–.69), ensuring reliable measurement of constructs (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Discriminant validity was established through AVE values surpassing the squared correlations for all paired variables (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

The SEM results, as presented in Table 4, demonstrate that transformational leadership had a significant positive effect on leader trust and perceived performance. Leader trust also significantly and positively predicted perceived performance.

Mediating Effect of Leader Trust

Our findings supported the significant influence of transformational leadership on leader trust, aligning with prior research (Cheo & Jung, 2020; B.-S. Lee et al., 2021). Transformational leadership fosters high-quality relationships, which is crucial in the hierarchical culture of Korean university taekwondo teams. Leaders who adopt this approach, which is characterized by competence, integrity, and individual understanding, can overcome potential psychological barriers and facilitate the development of trust among athletes. Thus, this study underscores the importance of implementing transformational leadership to maximize positive outcomes within university taekwondo teams.

 

We identified a positive relationship between transformational leadership and perceived performance among collegiate taekwondo athletes, corroborating the results of previous studies (Won & Choi, 2019; Wu et al., 2022). The demanding nature of taekwondo requires continuous improvement in skill and mental resilience. Transformational leadership, with its inspirational and supportive qualities, directly influences athletes’ perception of their performance. In a sport pushing players beyond their limits, these leadership qualities significantly shape athletes’ perceptions, contributing to enhanced performance outcomes.

 

Leader trust emerged as a significant factor positively predicting perceived performance among university taekwondo athletes, consistent with existing studies (Jin & Lee, 2022; J. Park et al., 2022; Yu & Yang, 2022). When leaders demonstrate expertise and consider athletes’ interests, trust is established, contributing to athletes’ heightened perception of outstanding performance. This aligns with organizational contexts where leaders fulfill individual needs for excellence, respect, and support. College taekwondo athletes, aspiring for excellence and recognition, benefit significantly from leaders who build trust, positively influencing their perceived athletic performance.

 

This study found a partial mediating effect of leader trust on the relationship between transformational leadership and perceived performance. Previous research (Jin & Lee, 2022; Kang, 2010; Kim & Kim, 2002) has supported this finding, emphasizing the crucial role of trust in improving performance outcomes. Transformational coaches are committed to athlete development and intellectual stimulation, acknowledging individual contributions, and cultivating trust. This deepens athletes’ confidence in their coaches, intensifying the positive effect of transformational leadership on performance perception. In summary, this study highlights the pivotal mediating role of leader trust in connecting transformational leadership with perceived performance, emphasizing the need for taekwondo leaders to cultivate trust to enhance athletes’ performance outcomes.

 

On a practical level, coaches should prioritize the development of transformational leadership skills within the team. By cultivating behaviors that inspire and empower athletes, foster a sense of purpose and vision, and provide individualized support, coaches can positively influence leader trust and, subsequently, perceived performance. Coaches should invest in leadership training programs and workshops to develop these transformational leadership qualities to achieve this. Furthermore, coaches of university taekwondo teams should pay attention to the role of leader trust as a mediating factor in the relationship between transformational leadership and perceived performance. To enhance leader trust, coaches can promote behaviors that foster trust building, such as effective communication, consistent actions, and fairness in decision-making processes. Encouraging coaches to actively listen to athletes’ concerns, provide constructive feedback, and involve athletes in decision making can enhance trust in leaders and create a supportive team environment. In this way, university taekwondo coaches can create an environment that nurtures transformational leadership, fosters leader trust, and ultimately enhances perceived performance among team athletes.

This study focused on specific South Korean regions, limiting the generalizability of the results, and used self-report questionnaires, introducing potential bias. Future research could diversify athlete populations and consider alternative data-collection methods. Further, the use of a cross-sectional research design restricted our ability to draw causal inferences; longitudinal or experimental approaches could enhance understanding in future studies.

Alzoraiki, M., Ahmad, A. R., Ateeq, A. A., Naji, G. M. A., Almaamari, Q. A., & Beshr, B. A. H. (2023). Impact of teachers’ commitment to the relationship between transformational leadership and sustainable teaching performance. Sustainability, 15(5), Article 4620. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15054620

 

Ban, E.-A. (2022). Relations of passion, fighting spirit, and perceived performance of Taekwondo Poomsae players [In Korean]. Journal of Martial Arts, 16(4), 271–287. https://doi.org/10.51223/kosoma.2022.11.16.4.271-287

 

Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1994). Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational leadership. Sage Publications.

 

Carless, S. A., Wearing, A. J., & Mann, L. (2000). A short measure of transformational leadership. Journal of Business and Psychology, 14(3), 389–405. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022991115523

 

Cheo, H., & Jung, H. (2020). The relationships between transformational leadership, leader’s trust and exercise adherence by taekwondo demonstration team leaders [In Korean]. The Journal of Korean Alliance of Martial Arts, 22(1), 65–77.

 

Cho, J.-H., Kang, C.-H., & Choi, Y.-H. (2017). The influence of transformational leadership on the performance of the organization: Mediator effect of trust [In Korean]. Korea International Trade Research Institute, 13(3), 525–541.

 

Chun, J. U., Yammarino, F. J., Dionne, S. D., Sosik, J. J., & Moon, H. K. (2009). Leadership across hierarchical levels: Multiple levels of management and multiple levels of analysis. The Leadership Quarterly, 20(5), 689–707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.06.003

 

Dayan, M., Di Benedetto, C. A., & Colak, M. (2009). Managerial trust in new product development projects: Its antecedents and consequences. R&D Management, 39(1), 21–37. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9310.2008.00538.x

 

Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104

 

Gagné, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self-determination theory and work motivation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(4), 331–362. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.322

 

Hair, J. F., Jr., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W. C. (1998). Multivariate data analysis (5th ed.). Prentice Hall International.

 

Jin, C., & Lee, S. (2022). The effect of transformational leadership of leaders as perceived by taekwondo athletes on their trust in leaders and their perceived performance [In Korean]. The Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 13(4), 433–446. http://doi.org/10.22143/HSS21.13.4.31

 

Johnson-George, C., & Swap, W. C. (1982). Measurement of specific interpersonal trust: Construction and validation of a scale to assess trust in a specific other. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43(6), 1306–1317. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.43.6.1306

 

Judge, T. A., & Piccolo, R. F. (2004). Transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic test of their relative validity. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(5), 755–768. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.89.5.755

 

Kang, J. (2010). The relationships among leaders’ transformational leadership, reliability, and team performance in school soccer [In Korean]. Korean Journal of Physical Education, 49(1), 37–46.

 

Kim, J., & Kim, C. (2002). Effects of transformational sport leadership on athletes’ trust, identification with leader, and sport behaviors [In Korean]. Korean Society of Sport Psychology.

 

Lee, B.-S., Chin, S.-T., & Park, J.-H. (2021). Effects of transformative leadership by university taekwondo demonstration leaders on leadership trust, continuation of exercise, and dropout [In Korean]. Korean Society for Leisure Sciences, 12(3), 9–20. https://doi.org/10.37408/kjls.2021.12.3.9

 

Lee, D., & Hwang, J. (2018). Structural relationships among charismatic leadership, leader trust, exercise commitment, and exercise performance of taekwondo instructors [In Korean]. Taekwondo Journal of Kukkiwon, 9(1), 121–140. http://doi.org/10.24881/tjk.2018.9.1.121

 

Lee, J., Lee, J., & Kim, W. (2016). The relationships between personal trainers’ servant leadership and exercise commitment, coaching efficiency, and leader trust [In Korean]. Korean Journal of Sports Sciences, 25(3), 891–903.

 

Lee, S.-J. (2023). A study on the relationships between leader trust, attitude, and exercise continuation of university taekwondo demonstration team members [In Korean]. Journal of Coaching Development, 25(3), 119–125. http://doi.org/10.47684/jcd.2023.05.25.3.119

 

Liu, J., Siu, O.-L., & Shi, K. (2010). Transformational leadership and employee well-being: The mediating role of trust in the leader and self-efficacy. Applied Psychology, 59(3), 454–479. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2009.00407.x

 

Manzoor, F., Wei, L., Nurunnabi, M., Subhan, Q. A., Shah, S. I. A., & Fallatah, S. J. S. (2019). The impact of transformational leadership on job performance and CSR as mediator in SMEs. Sustainability, 11(2), Article 436. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11020436

 

Mayer, R. C., Davis, J. H., & Schoorman, F. D. (1995). An integrative model of organizational trust. The Academy of Management Review, 20(3), 709–734. https://doi.org/10.2307/258792

 

Min, B. (2022). A study on the effect of college taekwondo athletes’ perception of judgement fairness on perceived performance and intention to continue exercise [In Korean]. The Korea Journal of Sport, 20(4), 605–616. https://doi.org/10.46669/kss.2022.20.4.055

 

Oh, Y.-T., & Yoo, J.-I. (2022). The relationship between transformational leadership and social loafing: Verification of the mediating effect of taekwondo athletes’ pride [In Korean]. Journal of Coaching Development, 24(5), 79–87. https://doi.org/10.47684/jcd.2022.11.24.5.79

 

Park, J., Han, S. J., Kim, J., & Kim, W. (2022). Structural relationships among transformational leadership, affective organizational commitment, and job performance: The mediating role of employee engagement. European Journal of Training and Development, 46(9), 920–936. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-10-2020-0149

 

Park, M.-E., & Byon, K. K. (2024). Exploring the relationship between super-leadership, self-leadership, and exercise commitment in university taekwondo teams. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, Article 1323503. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1323503

 

Prikshat, V., Rajesh, J. I., & Rajaguru, R. (2021). The growth satisfaction in jobs among hospitality employees: The role of transformational leadership, interpersonal communication satisfaction and trust. Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality and Tourism, 20(1), 48–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332845.2020.1821427

 

Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7(4), 422–445. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.4.422

 

Thompson, G., Buch, R., Thompson, P.-M. M., & Glasø, L. (2021). The impact of transformational leadership and interactional justice on follower performance and organizational commitment in a business context. Journal of General Management, 46(4), 274–283. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306307020984579

 

Walumbwa, F. O., Orwa, B., Wang, P., & Lawler, J. J. (2005). Transformational leadership, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction: A comparative study of Kenyan and U.S. financial firms. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 16(2), 235–256. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.1135

 

Wang, X.-H. F., & Howell, J. M. (2010). Exploring the dual-level effects of transformational leadership on followers. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(6), 1134–1144. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020754

 

Won, M., & Choi, Y. (2019). The relationships among transformational leadership, group cohesiveness, and perceived performance of handball players [In Korean]. Korean Journal of Fusion Ayurveda, 7(7), 42–56.

 

Wu, H., Kwak, H., Son, H., & Lee, J. (2022). The relationship between team cohesion and team performance of the transformative leadership of taekwondo leaders at Chinese universities [In Korean]. The Journal of Convergence Culture Technology, 8(4), 253–261. https://doi.org/10.17703/JCCT.2022.8.4.253

 

Yu, S.-W., & Yang, D.-S. (2022). The mediating effect of sports confidence in the relationship between leader’s trust and perceived performance of university taekwondo demonstrators [In Korean]. Journal of Martial Arts, 16(3), 83–102. https://doi.org/10.51223/kosoma.2022.08.16.3.83-102