Commitment-based human resource practices and job embeddedness: Perceived organizational support as a mediator
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Cite this article:
Zhang, T., Qasim, S., Ahmad, R., Sheng, S., Siyal, S., Ahmed, W., Ma, S., & Song, L.
(2025). Commitment-based human resource practices and job embeddedness: Perceived organizational support as a mediator.
Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal,
53(1),
e13626.
Abstract
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When employees believe that their interests are protected, they, in return, demonstrate positive behavior. In this research we sought to provide empirical evidence concerning the effect of commitment-based human resource practices on job embeddedness, with perceived organizational support acting as a mediator. Applying social exchange theory, we analyzed data obtained from a survey conducted with 700 professionals and skilled workers in the information technology industry in Pakistan. We found that commitment-based human resource practices significantly predicted job embeddedness. Moreover, the relationship between these two factors was mediated by employees’ perceived organizational support. Careful consideration of a firm’s managerial capabilities is needed for successful promotion of job embeddedness among employees. This research has identified how commitment-based human resource practices impact employee outcomes and provides a more comprehensive understanding of the complex ways in which employees respond to organizational practices.
Article Highlights
- Commitment-based human resource practices were found to play a significant role in influencing employees’ job embeddedness, with perceived organizational support acting as a mediator.
- Effective managerial skills fostered job embeddedness, highlighting the importance of organizational support.
- This research enhances comprehension of employee reactions to organizational strategies, particularly within Pakistan’s information technology industry.
Recruiting and retaining high-performing workers has become a significant and pressing issue for organizational performance in recent decades (G. Li et al., 2024; Luo et al., 2023; Tej et al., 2021). For a variety of reasons, including the high costs associated with staff turnover, losing a competent employee, and recruiting and training new staff, job embeddedness has been a growing field of study (Al-Suraihi et al., 2021). Mitchell et al. (2001) developed the first measure of job embeddedness to identify what predicts employees’ intention to leave and voluntary turnover, and how embeddedness relates to job satisfaction. As a more precise description, job embeddedness can be referred to as the driving force that encourages employees to remain within a particular organization for a longer period. The focus is on the employees’ motivation to stay in the organization despite incentives to leave (B. J. Collins & Mossholder, 2017).
According to Hay Group research (as cited in Mitchell et al., 2001), the cost of replacing an employee is between 50% and 60% of that employee’s yearly pay. This suggests that managers have long been concerned about the embeddedness of their high-functioning workers. As a result, why workers leave and why they stay are important issues. Coleman (2001) provided an insightful response to this conundrum: “Employees do not quit businesses; they leave managers and supervisors” (p. 144). According to social exchange theory (Blau, 1964), we should pay greater attention to the job relationship, particularly the implicit transactions that take place within it.
Despite the large number of studies focused on human resource management and its role in enhancing organizational performance, few have analyzed the relationship between commitment-based human resource practices and job embeddedness. Commitment-based human resource practices are linked with the concept of human resource management, oriented toward commitment. There are variants in the terminology used in earlier research to describe the concept of best practice in human resource management, such as high-performance work systems, high-commitment-based human resource practices, or high-participation human resource practices, but the idea underlying each of these descriptions is the same: a certain set of human resource practices that has the potential to improve overall organizational performance (Latorre et al., 2016). According to our interpretation in this study, there are seven commitment-based human resource practices focusing on mutual and long-term exchange relationships that increase and enhance employees’ skills, motivation, information, and empowerment. This area encompasses a wide range of responsibilities, including selection, compensation, training and development, performance appraisal, information sharing, employee participation, and supervisory support.
To our knowledge, only Bergiel et al. (2009) and Wheeler et al. (2010) have analyzed the relationship between commitment-based human resource practices and job embeddedness. Bergiel et al. focused on compensation, perceived supervisor support, internal growth opportunities, and training opportunities as the human resource practices influencing job embeddedness. Their findings indicated that these factors were negatively related to employees’ intention to quit. This suggests that when employees perceive that they receive good compensation and have supportive supervisors, ample growth opportunities, and sufficient training, they are less likely to desire to leave the organization. This underscores the significance of human resource practices in fostering job embeddedness and reducing turnover intention.
Similarly, Wheeler et al. (2010) delved into the relationship between human resource management effectiveness and job embeddedness, emphasizing the role of effective human resource practices in reducing voluntary turnover. They highlighted that human resource practices contribute to the development of job embeddedness through various mechanisms. Specifically, practices related to recruitment, selection, socialization, training, and compensation were identified as influential factors in enhancing job embeddedness. They argued that human resource practices signal consideration for employees’ development, which, in turn, fosters job embeddedness and reduces turnover intention.
Both Bergiel et al. (2009) and Wheeler et al. (2010) have provided empirical evidence supporting the positive relationship between commitment-based human resource practices and job embeddedness. Their findings indicate that when practices that demonstrate care for, appreciation of, and investment in employees are practiced in organizations, employees are more likely to feel embedded in the organization, reducing their intention to quit. However, the precise mechanisms through which human resource practices influence job embeddedness may vary, ranging from enhancing fit between employees and the organization to providing opportunities for growth and development.
According to Huning et al. (2020), one of the ways in which commitment-based human resource practices improve job embeddedness is via perceived organizational support. Perceived organizational support, according to Eisenberger et al. (1986), is the degree to which an organization supports employees and values their hard work and effort in the progress of the organization. Eisenberger et al. put forward a theory on organizational support, in which they argued that employees’ perception that their effort and welfare are valued in an organization leads to high levels of performance, less absenteeism, and lower chances of withdrawal of employees. Huning et al. gave an overview of the employee–employer relationship by describing the psychological link between the two parties and how employees embed themselves in the internal and external environment of the organization. In so doing, they drew attention to different perceptions and their impact.
Our aim was to build upon the findings of these prior studies by exploring the relationships among commitment-based human resource practices, perceived organizational support, and job embeddedness. By investigating the underlying mechanisms through which human resource practices influence job embeddedness, we sought to offer a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics driving employee retention. Through rigorous examination of these relationships, our aim was to contribute valuable insights to the existing literature on human resource practices and their impact on organizational outcomes.
In addition to this, scholars have continued to criticize the mounting evidence on human resource practices in regard to its lack of understanding concerning the mechanisms that link these practices to employee behaviors (Boxall & Winterton, 2018), where they fail to assess the issue of understanding the goals, mediators, and outcomes of human resource practices (Boxall et al., 2011). Unfortunately, although commitment-based human resource practices play a critical role in high-performing firms, there is still a lack of studies related to the direct linkage between these practices and high employee commitment, particularly with a theoretical base (Kinnie et al., 2005). Given the lack of research related to this linkage, we explored the relationship between commitment-based human resource practices and job embeddedness, with perceived organizational support as a mediator, especially in relation to social exchange theory (Blau, 1964).
We conducted our research in the context of the information technology (IT) sector in Pakistan, which further adds to the novelty of our study. First, cultural aspects such as collectivism, hierarchical structures, and power distance are notable in Pakistani organizations, potentially influencing how employees perceive human resource practices and their consequences (Kalsoom et al., 2020). These cultural dimensions could shape employees’ interpretations and responses to organizational support efforts, potentially impacting the level of their job embeddedness.
Second, the economic and institutional landscape in Pakistan differs from that of Western nations, in that it is characterized by diverse government regulations, industry norms, and market competitiveness (Manzoor et al., 2021). These contextual factors may affect the implementation and efficacy of commitment-based human resource practices in Pakistani IT firms, as well as the extent to which perceived organizational support acts as a mediator between human resource practices and job embeddedness.
Moreover, Pakistan’s IT sector is experiencing rapid growth and technological advancements, and has a youthful workforce with distinct career aspirations and mobility patterns (Ahmad et al., 2022). These dynamics could influence the significance and outcomes of human resource practices for employee retention and commitment, potentially yielding divergent results compared to more mature IT industries in Western contexts. Past research on the effects of commitment-based human resource practices on job embeddedness has been conducted mainly in a Western setting (Bergiel et al., 2009; Karatepe & Olugbade, 2016). Testing models in non-Western cultures, such as in Pakistan, helps researchers to gain a better understanding of why employees stay with or leave a firm. Finally, although all organizations must retain high-performing employees, it is even more critical for the IT sector to hire and maintain top-performing frontline employees, who are key for providing outstanding customer service.
Henkel et al. (2019) emphasized the shift of IT projects from a traditional task-oriented approach to a relationship-oriented one. The IT sector in Pakistan grew by 3.2% in 2019 (Henry-Nickie et al., 2019), and revenue in this sector of the country’s economy accounts for USD 2.8 billion. Nizam et al. (2020) indicated an increase of 44% in the IT industry in Pakistan in the first quarter of 2020, enabling a 6.6% contribution to gross domestic product (Robinson, 2020), which is continually increasing. Baugh and Roberts (1994) found that the IT workforce possesses a strong preference for freedom to work and is constantly seeking new knowledge-driven opportunities. They further stated that a huge percentage of the company’s intellectual capital is held by IT employees. However, IT organizations are constantly struggling with the serious issue of employee retention, given the increasing demand for staff and competitors’ aggressive strategies of recruitment. As a result of the proactive approach in the IT sector to employee retention and commitment, practitioners and academics have begun to examine the elements that influence employee retention and commitment in the sector (e.g., Deshpande & Gupta, 2019).
Social Exchange Theory
Within social exchange theory (Blau, 1964), a rationale for characterizing employee job embeddedness has been identified (Qasim & Rashidi, 2018). Social exchange theory explains social interaction as a process that is central to understanding employee behavior (Blau, 1964). This theory explains how employees behave and how they interact with individuals as well as society as a whole. The exchange process is the initial point from which the individual’s behavior begins from the perspective of cost and reward with others (Khattak et al., 2021). According to Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005), when employees are offered economic and socioemotional resources in an organization, they feel motivated and want to give back. Qasim and Rashidi (2018) and Zhu et al. (2023) defined employees’ degree of job embeddedness as their level of dedication and contribution to their organization.
Several empirical investigations (Menguc et al., 2013; Shuck & Wollard, 2010; Zhang et al., 2023) have revealed that social exchange theory is the most relevant and descriptive theory for explaining workplace contextual value and workplace behavior. Thus, this theory serves as a reasonable basis to demonstrate the link of organizational support with trust and employee attitude or behavior (Chiaburu & Marinova, 2006; J. Li et al., 2023; Mohanty & Arunprasad, 2020). This link also helps develop a positive perception of organizational support, which enables employees to believe that their contributions are valued in the firm, and that managers instigate actions for the well-being of the workforce. Scholars have argued that the relationship between managers and employees in an organization is one of social exchange and reciprocity (Eisenberger et al., 1986).
With an emphasis on social exchange theory, we hypothesized that when employees perceive they are provided with appropriate socioeconomic resources to assure their well-being via the organization’s human resource practices, as a form of payback they will display a high degree of job embeddedness. As a consequence, social exchange theory may provide a theoretical framework for understanding the variance in employees’ job embeddedness, as well as why individuals remain with a firm.
Organizational support theory (Eisenberger et al., 1986) also supports Blau’s (1964) social exchange theory, taking its roots from the norm of reciprocity between two parties (employees and employer). If there is a healthy balance between the duties and obligations of employees and employers, there is a greater chance of an increase in efficiency and innovativeness in work, with less absenteeism and withdrawal and a better workplace environment (Qiu et al., 2023).
The Current Study
Commitment-Based Human Resource Practices and Job Embeddedness
Many different human resource practices enable an organization to achieve its goals. Arthur (1994) established the notion of commitment-based human resource management, stating that employees of organizations where a commitment-oriented human resource system is implemented show higher scores on productivity compared to those in other organizations, and there is a lower rate of employee turnover. Furthermore, commitment-based human resource systems are intended to assist workers in achieving company objectives by making long-term investments in their well-being.
The main focal point of this study is the behavior and attitudes of employees; therefore, we considered job embeddedness (i.e., an attitudinal factor) to be a significant factor because of its positive influence on employees’ behavior and attitude. Numerous authors have proposed that the effective human resource practices of a firm create job embeddedness in employees (Amankwaa et al., 2019; Bambacas & Kulik, 2013; Bibi et al., 2016; Ye et al., 2021). For the survival and success of the organization, it is crucial to attract a brilliant workforce and put every possible effort into their retention (Vidal-Salazar et al., 2016). Furthermore, it has been observed (Coetzer et al., 2018; Kwantes et al., 2007) that a higher degree of job embeddedness will result in better work performance because individuals then have a better fit with their job and organization. Accordingly, these previous researchers have suggested that having a good fit with the organization and being valued by coworkers will motivate employees and develop job embeddedness. Furthermore, as employees create various relationships and links with their coworkers while working in an organization, they develop an understanding of faithfulness and responsibility that leads to increased levels of job embeddedness that eventually improves their performance (Hu et al., 2024).
Feldman and Ng (2007) stated that having a high level of job embeddedness will boost the performance of employees, which leads to greater rewards for them. These authors also stated that with the need to preserve such rewards and to have guaranteed job security, employees continue to engage in innovative work behavior to remain embedded in their existing occupation. Despite the importance of job embeddedness for boosting employee performance, there have been few studies of the factors that stimulate job embeddedness in employees (e.g., Karatepe & Olugbade, 2016). Taking this into account, in this study we examined the impact of commitment-based human resource practices on the degree of job embeddedness of frontline employees.
Hypothesis 1: There will be a significant positive relationship between commitment-based human resource practices and employees’ job embeddedness.
Commitment-Based Human Resource Practices and Perceived Organizational Support
Several studies, including those by Arthur (1994), Gosh and Gurunathan (2015), and Guthrie et al. (2009), have emphasized the significance of commitment-based human resource practices in creating favorable conditions for employee growth and development. These practices not only help in building a skilled workforce but also contribute to employee motivation, long-term growth, team building, and the development of firm-specific knowledge. Additionally, commitment-based human resource practices serve as signals of organizational support to employees, as highlighted by Allen et al. (2013) and Takeuchi et al. (2009). These practices engage employees in the organization’s goals and foster a sense of involvement and dedication.
According to Lee and Mitchell (1994), the notion of job embeddedness arose from the concept of voluntary employee turnover. Furthermore, according to Holtom and Darabi (2018), employees’ decision to quit is influenced by their perception of organizational support. Perceived organizational support plays a crucial role in employees’ job embeddedness, as suggested by Posthuma et al. (2013). When employees perceive that the organization values and supports their efforts, they are more likely to feel embedded in the organization and committed to its goals. This aligns with the principles of social exchange theory, in which it is posited that positive actions by the managers in the organization create obligations for employees to reciprocate in positive ways (Blau, 1964). Thus, we formed the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2: There will be a significant positive relationship between commitment-based human resource practices and employees’ perception of organizational support.
Hypothesis 3: There will be a significant positive relationship between perceived organizational support and employees’ job embeddedness.
Mediating Role of Perceived Organizational Support
Perceived organizational support refers to the social exchange relationship that occurs between an employer and an employee, and it is a critical construct because it has a positive impact on the quality of manager–employee relationships (Wayne et al., 1997), employee engagement (Nazir & Islam, 2017), organizational citizenship behavior (Jain et al., 2013), organizational commitment, and job embeddedness (Qasim & Rashidi, 2018). Under the principles of social exchange theory, when organizations give good support and care for their employees, the employees feel compelled to reciprocate by putting more effort into their jobs (Cialdini, 2001; Rhoades et al., 2001). Researchers have argued that when employees perceive that they are treated fairly, they will show strong job embeddedness toward their organization (Qasim & Rashidi, 2018).
Our aim in proposing the mediation model in this study was to elucidate the relationships among commitment-based human resource practices, perception of organizational support, and job embeddedness.
Hypothesis 4: Perceived organizational support will mediate the relationship between commitment-based human resource practices and job embeddedness.
The research model is depicted in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Research Model
Method
Participants and Procedure
The hypothesis testing was conducted using SmartPLS 3 software. Data were collected for this research on the basis of two inclusion criteria: (a) high-technology firms in which job embeddedness is emphasized in their business strategy and (b) firms having more than 100 employees. This selection was as per the study of Huselid (1995), because a formally established human resource system can be seen in such firms. Thus, the unit of analysis of this study was professionals and skilled workers in the IT industry, such as employees of software houses (software engineers). The sampling list for this research was created by using a directory of Pakistan Software Association Houses. One of the reasons for using this resource is that it is one of the authorized directories in Pakistan, which contains all the data regarding the entire IT industry. Purposive sampling was used because software engineers can provide any kind of information and judgment regarding the various types of innovative work behavior and the embedded methods motivating internal resources skills and abilities. We used a structured and closed-ended survey. The respondents were asked to read each statement carefully and select the option that best fitted their response.
The response rate was 77.6% as 1,000 survey forms were distributed and 776 were returned. A further 28 of the returned forms had more than 25% uncompleted items and these were eliminated during the initial data-editing stage (Sekaran & Bougie, 2016), along with “straight-lining” cases (Hair et al., 2010; Siyal, 2018, 2023), whereby individuals consistently picked the same response option regardless of the content of the item. Thus, we retained 700 usable surveys for data analysis.
Measures
All constructs were measured on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly agree to 5 = strongly disagree. Items were taken from past research after studying the evolution of the variables of interest: commitment-based human resource practices, selection (C. J. Collins & Smith, 2006), compensation, training and development, performance management, employee participation, information sharing, and supervisor support (Boselie et al., 2001). The items for perceived organizational support were derived from Eisenberger et al. (1986), and job-embeddedness items were derived from Crossley et al. (2007).
Selection
This factor denotes the processes and standards utilized in companies to identify and recruit new personnel. It encompasses procedures such as job interviews, assessment tests, and background checks aimed at ensuring the selection of the most suitable candidate for the position. We used four items to assess selection, for example, “My organization gives internal candidates consideration over external candidates for job openings.”
Compensation
Compensation involves both monetary and nonmonetary rewards provided to employees in exchange for their services and contributions to the organization. This encompasses salary, bonuses, benefits, and other incentives designed to attract, motivate, and retain employees. We used three items to assess compensation, for example, “I am not getting underpaid for my work.”
Training and Development
This facet relates to the efforts made by management in organizations to enhance the knowledge, skills, and abilities of their workforce. It encompasses training programs, workshops, mentoring, and other learning opportunities aimed at improving employee performance and facilitating career advancement. We assessed this variable with three items, for example, “I am well-prepared for my work because of the training I received from my business unit.”
Performance Management
Performance management encompasses the procedures and systems utilized in organizations to set goals, assess performance, provide feedback, and reward or discipline employees based on their performance. It includes activities such as performance evaluations, goal setting, and performance improvement plans. We assessed performance management with three items, for example, “My organization uses job rotation to expand my skills.”
Employee Participation
Employee participation refers to involving employees in decision-making processes and organizational activities. This includes mechanisms like employee involvement programs, suggestion systems, and team-based decision making aimed at empowering employees and fostering their engagement in organizational operations. We used four items to assess this variable, for example, “My organization puts a lot of effort into getting to know employees’ opinions.”
Information Sharing
Information sharing involves the timely and relevant distribution of information to employees within the organization. It covers communication channels, feedback mechanisms, and transparency practices aimed at keeping employees informed about organizational objectives, strategies, and performance. There were six items in this measure. A sample item is “I am well-informed about the vision and mission of the company.”
Supervisor Support
Supervisor support indicates the extent to which employees perceive their immediate supervisors as supportive, approachable, and helpful. It encompasses aspects such as providing guidance, resources, feedback, and emotional support to employees to enhance their job performance and well-being. This measure comprised 13 items. A sample item is “My direct supervisor shows appreciation for a job well done.”
Organizational Support
We assessed employees’ perception of organizational support with five items, for example, “My organization really cares about my well-being.”
Job Embeddedness
We assessed job embeddedness with four items, for example, “I feel attached to this organization.”
Commitment-Based Human Resource Practices
Commitment-based human resource practices were measured with seven items. A sample item is “My organization gives internal candidates consideration over external candidates for job openings.”
Results
Sample Demographic Characteristics
Table 1 presents a descriptive profile of the respondents’ demographic and professional characteristics.
Table 1. Demographic and Professional Profile of Respondents
Note. Semiprivate businesses are those that have a partnership with the government.
Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Analysis
Table 2 shows that all correlation coefficients were less than .90 (Hair et al., 2010). All assumptions related to the size of the sample, scale of variables, multivariate normal distribution, outliers, and multicollinearity were checked before analyzing the data (Hair et al., 2010). There was no multicollinearity present in the measurement model.
Table 2. Descriptive Analysis of Main Constructs Used in Measurement Models
Note. N = 700. Cronbach alpha values are reported on the diagonal.
** p < .01.
Analyses and Results for Measurement Models
Measurement Model Results
Table 3 presents the measurement model results, detailing standardized loadings, average variance extracted (AVE), Cronbach’s alpha, and rho_a values for first-order and second-order constructs. For first-order constructs the loadings indicate item strength, AVE gauges variance captured relative to error, and reliability metrics assess internal consistency. For second-order commitment-based human resource practices, the constructs of perceived organizational support and job embeddedness also show reliability and validity metrics, aiding in assessing the quality of the model.
Table 3. Measurement Model Item Loadings, Average Variance Extracted, Composite Reliability, and Cronbach’s Alpha Values
Note. AVE = average variance extracted; CR = composite reliability.
*** p < .001.
Table 4 presents the heterotrait–monotrait ratio of correlations, which is another method to assess discriminant validity by comparing the correlations between constructs against the correlations within constructs. All values were below .85, indicating satisfactory discriminant validity.
Table 4. Heterotrait–Monotrait Ratio Criterion
Analyses and Results of Structural Equation Modeling and Hypothesis Testing
Coefficient of Determination and Testing the Predictive Relevance of the Model
Table 5 provides the coefficient of determination (R2) and the results of testing the predictive relevance of the model. The R2 value indicates the proportion of variance in the endogenous latent variable (job embeddedness) explained by its predecessor variables (commitment-based human resource practices and perceived organizational support). In this case, commitment-based human resource practices and perceived organizational support together accounted for 50% of the variance in job embeddedness, indicating a moderate level of predictive accuracy.
Additionally, the effect size (f2) measures the impact of the predecessor variables on the endogenous latent variable. Here, the effect size was medium, suggesting a moderating effect of commitment-based human resource practices and perceived organizational support on job embeddedness. Furthermore, the cross-validated redundancy blindfolding procedure evaluates the predictive relevance of job embeddedness. The Q² value indicates that the model predicted 30% of the variance in job embeddedness, indicating a satisfactory level of predictive accuracy.
Table 5. Coefficient of Determination and Value of Endogenous Variable
Note. CBHRP = commitment-based human resource practices; POS = perceived organizational support; SSE = sum of squares predictor errors; SSO = sum of squares observed value.
Summary of Hypothesis Testing Results
The hypothesis testing results are shown in Table 6, and the structural modeling results are in Figure 2. Hypothesis 1, in which we posited a relationship between commitment-based human resource practices and job embeddedness, was supported. The results showed a significant positive relationship between commitment-based human resource practices and employees’ perception of organizational support, and a significant positive relationship between perceived organizational support and employees’ job embeddedness, supporting Hypotheses 2 and 3. The results of a mediation analysis, which we conducted to examine the indirect relationship between commitment-based human resource practices and job embeddedness through perceived organizational support, supported Hypothesis 4. Thus, perceived organizational support partially mediated the relationship between commitment-based human resource practices and job embeddedness.
The indirect effect of commitment-based human resource practices on job embeddedness was also positive and significant, β = .30, t = 7.68, p < .05. The 95% confidence interval (CI) for the indirect effect did not include zero, indicating that the effect was statistically significant, 95% CI [0.214, 0.372]. This means that commitment-based human resource practices had a meaningful indirect impact on job embeddedness through the mediator, and this effect was not due to random chance. According to Nitzl and Hirsch (2016), the ratio of the indirect-to-total effect, which is also called the variance accounted for (VAF) value, is used to determine the degree to which the procedure of mediation illuminates the modification of the dependent variable.
VAF = (a × b) ÷ (a × b + c) (1)
A VAF under 20% denotes no mediation. However, partial mediation is present if the VAF value is between 20% and 80%, and full mediation is considered to be present if the VAF value is greater than 80% (Hair et al., 2016). For our prediction that there would be a significant positive relationship between commitment-based human resource practices and employees’ perception of organizational support (Hypothesis 4), the result obtained was a VAF value of 49.8%, indicating that perceived organizational support was a partial mediator of the relationship between commitment-based human resource practices and job embeddedness.
Table 6. Hypothesis Testing Results
Note. CBHRP = commitment-based human resource practices; POS = perceived organizational support; JE = job embeddedness.
Figure 2. Structural Model
*** p < .001.
Testing Semipartial Correlations
We chose semipartial correlations (vs. partial least squares estimation) for analyzing the individual effects of commitment-based human resource practices on job embeddedness. The decision was made for two reasons: First, we considered there was a need for an approach that would enable us to estimate the correlations between predictors (in this case, the dimensions of commitment-based human resource practices) and the dependent variable, while being able to partition the variance explained among these predictors (Stevens, 2003). Second, semipartial correlations enabled us to accurately analyze relative importance.
Table 7 presents the semipartial correlations, calculated using decidualization, where the semipartial correlation was calculated between each dimension of commitment-based human resource practices and job embeddedness, controlling for the effect of the other covariates on job embeddedness. The results show that the dimensions of employee participation and information sharing exhibited a significant positive relationship with job embeddedness, indicating that higher levels of employee participation and information sharing were associated with increased job embeddedness. Additionally, the dimension of compensation showed a significant positive relationship with job embeddedness. However, selection, performance management, and supportive supervision were each found to carry nonsignificant weight and correlation with job embeddedness.
Table 7. Semipartial Correlations Between Each Dimension of Commitment-Based Human Resource Practices and Job Embeddedness
Note. N = 700. Dependent variable = job embeddedness. We controlled for the effects of the covariates on each predictor dimension.
Discussion
This study deviates from others in that previously no research has been conducted in which the three variables have been considered together. Nor have prior researchers examined job embeddedness as an outcome of commitment-based human resource practices in the context of employees in the IT sector in Pakistan (Bambacas & Kulik, 2013; Karatepe & Olugbade, 2016; Yang et al., 2011). The studies by Bambacas and Kulik (2013) and Karatepe and Olugbade and (2016) provide valuable insights into the relationship between human resource practices and employee attitudes and behaviors, albeit in different contexts and with distinct outcomes. This study extends the literature by investigating commitment-based human resource practices and perceived organizational support in the IT sector in Pakistan.
This study also expands social exchange theory (Blau, 1964) and contributes to the literature by supporting the theoretical spectrum related to job embeddedness as well as commitment-based human resource practices and the mediating role of perceived organizational support (Chiaburu & Marinova, 2006; Khattak et al., 2021; Mohanty & Arunprasad, 2020). Our results suggest that employees are likely to pay back when they are committed to a firm, particularly in the IT sector. The analysis of the data supports the positive impact of commitment-based human resource practices on employees’ job embeddedness. These findings are not in line with those of Tan et al. (2019), who investigated the impact of job embeddedness on employees’ voice behavior. They found that job embeddedness was positively related to voice behavior, indicating that employees who feel embedded in their jobs are more likely to speak up with innovative ideas and suggestions to challenge the status quo. This finding aligns with the notion that job embeddedness enables employees to exceed formal role expectations.
The dimensions of commitment-based human resources practices in our study can be integrated into practices for workforce management, primarily in the context of developing countries. Our results show that applying commitment-based human resource practices helps strengthen employee relations with managers in the organization as employees may make a cognitive assessment of their fit and benefits as well as linking with the organization. Further, compared with their colleagues, those employees with greater job embeddedness tend to be happier at work and engage in enhancement of organizational performance (Artiningsih et al., 2023).
Our research findings will assist human resource managers in understanding that the implementation of commitment-based human resource practices is effective for fostering job embeddedness of employees. Similarly, human resource practitioners should also focus on practices that are more likely to result in strong job embeddedness of employees and, consequently, will lead to high performance. Thus, commitment-based human resource practices play a significant role in stimulating the job embeddedness of employees. Therefore, to yield positive results in the process of achievement of organizational performance and success, in comparison to individual human resource practices, managers should use the bundled form of human resource practices including performance management, training and development, employee benefits, employee incentives, compensation, and evaluations.
Limitations and Future Research Directions
This study has certain limitations. We suggest that future research is conducted using a different method and design as well as including a time lag. Longitudinal approaches should also be assessed. In this study we examined the variables of commitment-based human resource practices and job embeddedness; however, more subdimensions should be explored. Similarly, the model we used can be supplemented further by other variables to improve the results and enrich the literature concerning commitment-based human resource practices. In addition, we included only employees of high-technology firms that highlight expansion and innovation in their business plan. Future studies could conduct research with a more diverse sample of a larger size, with participants selected from different contexts.
Conclusion
The research objective was to assess the impact of commitment-based human resource practices on employees’ job embeddedness, and to assess perceived organizational support as a mediator. The findings of the survey showed that commitment-based human resource practices significantly predicted job embeddedness among employees, which suggests that they are likely to pay back when they are committed to a firm. This serves as an intrinsic motivating stimulant, and eventually leads to a feeling of being worthy and to the act of reciprocation. Further, to the best of our knowledge, no research has previously been conducted to study the mediating role of perceived organizational support in the relationship between job embeddedness and commitment-based human resource practices. Our research enriches the literature and provides a base that can be further explored in future studies, especially in the context of developing countries. By doing so, researchers will contribute to the literature by confirming the concept of commitment-based human resource practices and job embeddedness through analysis in other sectors.
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Figure 1. Research Model
Table 1. Demographic and Professional Profile of Respondents
Note. Semiprivate businesses are those that have a partnership with the government.
Table 2. Descriptive Analysis of Main Constructs Used in Measurement Models
Note. N = 700. Cronbach alpha values are reported on the diagonal.
** p < .01.
Table 3. Measurement Model Item Loadings, Average Variance Extracted, Composite Reliability, and Cronbach’s Alpha Values
Note. AVE = average variance extracted; CR = composite reliability.
*** p < .001.
Table 4. Heterotrait–Monotrait Ratio Criterion
Table 5. Coefficient of Determination and Value of Endogenous Variable
Note. CBHRP = commitment-based human resource practices; POS = perceived organizational support; SSE = sum of squares predictor errors; SSO = sum of squares observed value.
Table 6. Hypothesis Testing Results
Note. CBHRP = commitment-based human resource practices; POS = perceived organizational support; JE = job embeddedness.
Figure 2. Structural Model
*** p < .001.
Table 7. Semipartial Correlations Between Each Dimension of Commitment-Based Human Resource Practices and Job Embeddedness
Note. N = 700. Dependent variable = job embeddedness. We controlled for the effects of the covariates on each predictor dimension.
The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding authors.
At the time of publication the affiliation of Saeed Siyal is College of Business and Economics, United Arab Emirates University, United Arab Emirates.
This research was supported by the Research on the Construction of Anhui (Hefei) Innovative Legal Zone Grant Number：HFXZDKT202406.
Sibei Sheng, Research Center for Technological Innovation and Coordinated Development, Institute of Advanced Technology, University of Science and Technology of China, 96 Jinzhai Road, Hefei, Anhui, People’s Republic of China. Email: [email protected], or Saeed Siyal, Business School, NingboTech University, South Qianhu Road, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315100, People's Republic of China. Email: [email protected]
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