Article Highlights
- Interest in distant entrepreneurial role models significantly predicted rural college students’ entrepreneurial self-efficacy, whereas interest in close entrepreneurial role models did not.
- Entrepreneurial self-efficacy mediated the relationship between interest in distant entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial intentions.
- Proactive personality moderated the relationship between entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions.
As China’s rural revitalization strategy gains momentum, people are increasingly returning to their hometowns to start businesses (Zhuang & Liu, 2024). Scholars have studied the entrepreneurial intentions of this group from sociological, economical, and managerial perspectives (C. J. Chen & Yang, 2022). However, most of the research has focused on migrant workers, and there has been limited attention given to rural college students (W. Wang & Xiang, 2023). Studies have examined the entrepreneurial intentions of college students with respect to personal traits (Zhu & Zhang, 2014), policy environments such as entrepreneurship policies (Park et al., 2015), entrepreneurial environments (Sesen, 2013), and educational backgrounds such as entrepreneurship education (Yu, 2023). Recently, scholars have also started to consider the role of imitative entrepreneurial behavior in the entrepreneurship of college students. Entrepreneurial role models play an important external role in triggering college students’ entrepreneurial intentions (C. J. Chen & Yang, 2022). Bosma et al. (2012) found that 81% of entrepreneurs had a role model before starting a business, and that one-third of these entrepreneurial testimonials claimed that they would not have chosen to start a business if they did not have a role model. Such studies suggest that entrepreneurial decisions are often influenced by entrepreneurial role models (Z. L. Wang & Xue, 2020). Many previous studies have considered family members (Laspita et al., 2012) and coworkers (Nanda & Sørensen, 2010) as entrepreneurial role models. Recently, noncontact role models, such as well-known entrepreneurs who have social influence and a wide reach on social media, have also been considered (X. D. Xie, 2019). Therefore, this study investigated the effects of different types of entrepreneurial role models on the entrepreneurial intentions of Chinese rural college students.
While external factors that promote entrepreneurship can create favorable environments for people to start businesses in their hometowns, the success of such efforts is ultimately dependent on the self-efficacy of the entrepreneurs themselves (Long & Tian, 2023). In other words, their belief in their ability to succeed plays a crucial role in the realization of their entrepreneurial intentions (Yu, 2023). It is worth exploring how interest in different types of entrepreneurial role models affects the entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intentions of rural college students. Informed by social learning theory, this study established a research model of the underlying mechanisms and boundary conditions of the relationships between interest in different types of entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial intentions.
Entrepreneurial Role Models and Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy
Role models refer to individuals who play attractive and central social roles in society, setting examples for others to follow (Bell, 1970). Role identity theory suggests that identifying with or comparing themselves to role models can help individuals determine their own sense of self (Akerlof & Kranton, 2000). Individuals are thus attracted to role models whom they perceive to be similar to themselves in terms of traits, behavioral patterns, and behavioral styles, as well as individual career choices (e.g., entrepreneurship; Krumboltz et al., 1976). Just as Intel founder Andy Grove was considered a spiritual mentor by entrepreneurs such as Steve Jobs, many entrepreneurs have claimed that their entrepreneurial behavior was influenced by celebrities such as Steve Jobs, as well as closer connections such as family members (Bosma et al., 2012). Therefore, this study categorized entrepreneurial role models into two types based on the distance and frequency of contact between them and the potential entrepreneurs (X. D. Xie, 2019): Close entrepreneurial role models are those who have direct and frequent interactions with the potential entrepreneur (which often involves being a familiar figure around them), while distant entrepreneurial role models are those who do not interact with the potential entrepreneur but have a high level of visibility and social influence (e.g., well-known entrepreneurs, historical entrepreneurial figures, and successful fictional entrepreneurs from film and television) and model attributes for the potential entrepreneur. Some scholars have suggested that fictional entrepreneurs provide real-life entrepreneurs with information about their image and about entrepreneurship, which is essentially no different to that obtained from real entrepreneurs (X. D. Xie, 2019). Therefore, fictional entrepreneurs can also be distant entrepreneurial role models.
Entrepreneurial self-efficacy is an individual’s perception of their intrinsic self-confidence and competence in being able to accomplish entrepreneurial tasks (C. C. Chen et al., 1998). Social learning theory suggests that individuals form alternative experiences, change self-perceptions, and gain confidence through observational learning from role models (Bandura, 1977). During the entrepreneurial process, potential entrepreneurs usually look for role models who are similar to themselves and aim to increase their similarity to these role models through imitation (Gibson, 2004). When the learning object is a close entrepreneurial role model with whom the individual has a personal or work-based relationship, the proximity of the role model can gain the attention of the learner and promote the thought that “If they can do it, I can do it,” through which the learner becomes more confident and believes that they are also capable of achieving their goals (Wyrwich et al., 2016). Relying on social media coverage of the success stories and business thinking of distant entrepreneurial role models (e.g., famous entrepreneurs), the group approval of distant entrepreneurial role models can also trigger an individual’s attention and encourage them to make certain decisions and achieve certain goals (Basow & Howe, 1980). Therefore, I proposed the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1a: Interest in distant entrepreneurial role models will positively predict entrepreneurial self-efficacy.
Hypothesis 1b: Interest in close entrepreneurial role models will positively predict entrepreneurial self-efficacy.
Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy and Entrepreneurial Intentions
Entrepreneurial self-efficacy is an important factor that influences entrepreneurial intentions (Krueger et al., 2000). Self-efficacy is related to self-confidence, will, and persistence, and individuals with a high sense of efficacy may prefer challenging tasks (Bandura & Cervone, 1986). In line with this view, J. H. Wang et al. (2016) stated that individuals with high entrepreneurial self-efficacy tend to believe that they can effect change and control their thoughts and behaviors. These individuals believe in their ability to cope with difficulties and challenges, and to successfully create new ventures (Piperopoulos & Dimov, 2015). Liñán et al. (2011) found consistent positive correlations between entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions across different cultural contexts. Therefore, I proposed the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2: Entrepreneurial self-efficacy will positively predict entrepreneurial intentions.
Interest in Entrepreneurial Role Models and Entrepreneurial Intentions
Individual entrepreneurial choices are influenced by entrepreneurial role models (Dyer & Handler, 1994). Social learning theory recognizes observational learning from others as an important form of individual learning (Bandura & Walters, 1977). Potential entrepreneurs reduce the costs of trial and error in the entrepreneurial process by emulating entrepreneurial role models, thereby increasing the feasibility of entrepreneurship (Scherer et al. 1989). A cross-national study found that close entrepreneurial role models (i.e., parents, grandparents, relatives, friends, classmates, and coworkers) enhance students’ entrepreneurial intentions (Laspita et al., 2012). In addition, Laviolette et al. (2012) stated that when potential entrepreneurs learn about what distant entrepreneurial role models (e.g., well-known entrepreneurs) have done and how they have succeeded, it creates a sense of identification with their personal or professional experiences. This motivates the potential entrepreneurs to develop strong entrepreneurial intentions. Therefore, I proposed the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 3a: Interest in distant entrepreneurial role models will positively predict entrepreneurial intentions.
Hypothesis 3b: Interest in close entrepreneurial role models will positively predict entrepreneurial intentions.
The Mediating Role of Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy
Entrepreneurial role models can provide motivation and incentives to potential entrepreneurs, as well as help them develop their self-concept (Gibson, 2004). Potential entrepreneurs’ exposure to or observation of close entrepreneurial role models is effective in facilitating experience acquisition and enhancing entrepreneurial self-efficacy. The motivational function of distant entrepreneurial role models has also been confirmed in a qualitative study that found entrepreneurs’ entrepreneurial confidence is often influenced by other entrepreneurs, including famous ones (Bosma et al., 2012). Entrepreneurial self-efficacy influences an individual’s intention to engage in entrepreneurial activity, with increased self-efficacy being an important motivator for the persistence of these intentions (Yu, 2023). Interest in entrepreneurial role models can improve an individual’s perception of entrepreneurial feasibility and strengthen their belief that entrepreneurship is controllable, which, in turn, generates stronger entrepreneurial intentions (Nowiński & Haddoud, 2019). It has been logically argued that interest in entrepreneurial role models can stimulate an individual’s entrepreneurial confidence and enhance their intentions (Van Auken et al., 2006). Therefore, I proposed the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 4a: Entrepreneurial self-efficacy will mediate the relationship between interest in distant entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial intentions.
Hypothesis 4b: Entrepreneurial self-efficacy will mediate the relationship between interest in close entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial intentions.
The Moderating Effect of Proactive Personality
Proactive personality refers to an individual’s tendency to act proactively to change their external environment without being constrained by situational resistance (Bateman & Crant, 1993). This can effectively predict an individual’s entrepreneurial intentions (Baum et al., 2001). Individuals with a more proactive personality usually show strong autonomy and primacy (Zhang et al., 2017). Entrepreneurial self-efficacy also plays a key role in an individual’s entrepreneurial intentions (Miao et al., 2017). Individuals with different levels of proactive personality may differ in the extent to which their entrepreneurial self-efficacy affects their entrepreneurial intentions. Individuals with more proactive personalities tend to proactively seek opportunities and make connections, and thus have the possibility of acquiring more entrepreneurial resources to strengthen their self-efficacy (Ma et al., 2021), which, in turn, enhances their entrepreneurial intentions. In contrast, those with less proactive personalities tend to passively adapt to the environment (J. Xie & Yan, 2016), making it difficult to obtain resources that are beneficial to entrepreneurship (J. Wang, 2023) and potentially weakening their confidence in implementing entrepreneurship (Liu et al., 2016), thus decreasing entrepreneurial intentions. From this, it can be inferred that a highly proactive personality may enhance the effect of entrepreneurial self-efficacy on entrepreneurial intention, while a less proactive personality may weaken the effect of entrepreneurial self-efficacy on entrepreneurial intention. Therefore, I proposed the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 5: Proactive personality will play a moderating role in the relationship between entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions, such that the relationship will be stronger among individuals with highly proactive personalities than among those with less proactive personalities.
My theoretical model is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Theoretical Model
Method
Participants and Procedure
Participants were rural college students from six public universities in Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, China. As of 2023, there were 76,890 students in these universities. Jackson (2003) proposed that the ratio of the estimated parameter to sample size should be 1:20 under maximum likelihood estimation. If the ratio is less than 1:5, the result is not credible. Hence, I distributed 550 questionnaires using stratified random sampling. I acquired the consent of university committees and the individual participants. After screening the returned surveys by removing incomplete ones and those with all the same answers, I obtained 494 valid questionnaires. Of the participants, 47.97% were men and 52.03% were women. The participants were freshmen (13.0%), sophomores (33.4%), juniors (28.7%), and seniors (24.9%) from various majors (business and nonbusiness). It is worth noting that entrepreneurs can be found in any field. In some nonbusiness majors, more than half of the students have entrepreneurial intentions (Frazier & Niehm, 2006).
Measures
Interest in Entrepreneurial Role Models
I measured interest in entrepreneurial role models using a seven-item scale developed by X. D. Xie (2019). Three items are used to measure interest in close entrepreneurial role models (e.g., “I am interested in the entrepreneurial stories of entrepreneurs I know”). Four items are used to measure interest in distant entrepreneurial role models (e.g., “I am interested in learning about entrepreneurial celebrities through the media”). The items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy
I assessed entrepreneurial self-efficacy with a four-item scale developed by Zhao et al. (2005). Respondents rate their level of confidence in successfully identifying new business opportunities, creating new products or services, thinking creatively, and commercializing ideas on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = not very confident, 5 = very confident).
Proactive Personality
I measured proactive personality with an 11-item scale developed by Shang and Gan (2009). A sample item is “I like to challenge the status quo.” Participants respond to the items on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Entrepreneurial Intentions
I measured entrepreneurial intentions with a six-item scale developed by Liñán and Chen (2009). A sample item is “I already have strong intentions to start a business.” The items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Data Analysis
I used SPSS 26.0 and Amos 23.0 for common method bias analysis, reliability and validity tests, mediation effect tests, and moderation effect tests.
Results
Common Method Bias
To evaluate the potential for common method bias, Harman’s one-factor test (Harman, 1967) was applied. The results showed that the cumulative variance explained by the first factor was 28.17%, which did not exceed the 40% threshold (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Therefore, common method bias was not considered to be of concern in this study.
Reliability and Validity
Reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability, while convergent validity was assessed using average variance extracted, and discriminant validity was assessed using the Fornell–Larcker criterion. The results are shown in Table 1. For the five main constructs, Cronbach’s alpha values and composite reliability values all exceeded the critical value of .70 for goodness of fit (Nunnally, 1978). The average variance extracted values all exceeded the acceptable threshold of .50, indicating that the convergent validity was acceptable for all variables (Henseler et al., 2009). With respect to discriminant validity, the square roots of the average variance extracted values for all constructs in the model were greater than the corresponding interconceptual correlations (see Table 2), indicating good discriminant validity among the constructs (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).
Table 1. Reliability and Validity of the Scales
Note. CR = composite reliability; AVE = average variance extracted; DERM = interest in distant entrepreneurial role models; CERM = interest in close entrepreneurial role models; ESE = entrepreneurial self-efficacy; PP = proactive personality; EI = entrepreneurial intentions.
Table 2. Correlations and Discriminant Validity
Note. Square roots of average variance extracted values are in boldface on the diagonal. DERM = interest in distant entrepreneurial role models; CERM = interest in close entrepreneurial role models; EI = entrepreneurial intentions; ESE = entrepreneurial self-efficacy; PP = proactive personality.
** p < .01.
Structural Equation Modeling
The structural equation model was constructed using Amos 23.0 and tested by the maximum likelihood method. The results are shown in Table 3, with the fit indices of the model all meeting the requirements (Wu, 2009).
Table 3. Model Fit Indices, Criteria, and Results
Note. RMSEA = root-mean-square error of approximation; TLI = Tucker–Lewis index; CFI = comparative fit index; NFI = normed fit index; GFI = goodness-of-fit index.
Main Effects
I used Amos 23.0 to construct structural equation models of interest in distant and close entrepreneurial role models, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and entrepreneurial intentions. The results of the path analysis are shown in Table 4. Interest in distant entrepreneurial role models positively predicted entrepreneurial self-efficacy, supporting Hypothesis 1a. In contrast, interest in close entrepreneurial role models did not significantly predict entrepreneurial self-efficacy, so Hypothesis 1b was not supported. Entrepreneurial self-efficacy was a positive predictor of entrepreneurial intentions, supporting Hypothesis 2. Interest in both distant and close entrepreneurial role models positively predicted entrepreneurial intentions, supporting Hypotheses 3a and 3b.
Table 4. Parameter Estimates for Model
Note. DERM = interest in distant entrepreneurial role models; ESE = entrepreneurial self-efficacy; CERM = interest in close entrepreneurial role models; EI = entrepreneurial intentions.
Mediation Effects
I used the bootstrapping method (5,000 repeated samples) to test the significance of the mediation effects (Preacher & Hayes, 2004). This method estimates the 95% confidence interval of the mediation effect, based on the characteristics of the sample distribution. When the confidence interval of the indirect effect does not include zero, the mediation effect is considered significant. The results are shown in Table 5. The indirect effect of interest in distant entrepreneurial role models on entrepreneurial intentions via entrepreneurial self-efficacy was significant, supporting Hypothesis 4a. Conversely, the indirect effect of interest in close entrepreneurial role models on entrepreneurial intentions via entrepreneurial self-efficacy was not significant, and Hypothesis 4b was not supported.
Table 5. Results of Mediation Effect Testing
Note. DERM = interest in distant entrepreneurial role models; CERM = interest in close entrepreneurial role models; ESE = entrepreneurial self-efficacy; EI = entrepreneurial intentions; CI = confidence interval; LL = lower level; UL = upper limit.
Moderation Effect
After mean-centering entrepreneurial self-efficacy and proactive personality, we tested the moderating effect of proactive personality by constructing an interaction term. The interaction term (Model 3 in Table 6) had a significant effect on entrepreneurial intentions, indicating that proactive personality positively moderated the relationship between entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions. Thus, Hypothesis 5 was supported. Therefore, I plotted the effect of entrepreneurial self-efficacy on entrepreneurial intentions at different levels of proactive personality, using M ± 1 SD as a grouping criterion (see Figure 2).
Table 6. Results of Moderation Effect Testing: Predicting Entrepreneurial Intentions
Note. ESE = entrepreneurial self-efficacy; PP = proactive personality.
* p < .05. ** p < .01.
Figure 2. Moderating Effect of Proactive Personality in Relationship Between Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy and Entrepreneurial Intentions
Discussion
Informed by social learning theory, I investigated the effects of interest in distant entrepreneurial role models and interest in close entrepreneurial role models on rural college students’ entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions. I also examined the moderating role of proactive personality in the relationship between entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions. I found that interest in each type of entrepreneurial role model significantly predicted entrepreneurial intentions. Interest in distant entrepreneurial role models significantly predicted rural college students’ entrepreneurial self-efficacy, whereas interest in close entrepreneurial role models did not. Further, entrepreneurial self-efficacy mediated the relationship between interest in distant entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial intentions, and proactive personality moderated the relationship between entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions.
Theoretical Contributions
The study contributes to the literature in several ways. First, it expands social learning theory research on entrepreneurial role models by focusing on distant and close entrepreneurial role models and analyzing the relationships of both with the entrepreneurial self-efficacy of rural college students. My findings provide a more comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing rural college students’ entrepreneurial intentions. Second, this study proposed a classification of close and distant entrepreneurial role models based on the distance and frequency of contact between them and potential entrepreneurs, as well as expanding the scope of distant entrepreneurial role models to include historical and fictional entrepreneurs. China’s regional entrepreneurial activities are strong in the East and weak in the West, and there are significant entrepreneurial differences between regions (Yang et al., 2021). Therefore, it can be difficult for potential entrepreneurs to find suitable proximate entrepreneurial role models (Minniti, 2005). My categorization suggests the imbalance of entrepreneurship across different regions can be overcome by rural college students selecting multiple types of distant entrepreneurial role models and developing role identification with them, thus enhancing the students’ willingness to return home to start their own businesses. Third, I found that interest in distant entrepreneurial role models positively predicted entrepreneurial self-efficacy, while interest in close entrepreneurial role models did not. These results differ from those found by Zapkau et al. (2015). Because of the uneven distribution of entrepreneurship at the regional level and regional differences in entrepreneurship levels (Sternberg, 2009), entrepreneurs are more likely to find suitable close entrepreneurial role models in regions with high entrepreneurship, helping them to realize their entrepreneurial intentions (Minniti, 2005). Finally, my study has replicated previous research on the mediating role of entrepreneurial self-efficacy in the relationship between interest in entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial intentions, generalizing the findings of Naktiyok et al. (2010) to a broader sample.
Practical Implications
Practical insights from this study include the need to pay attention to the entrepreneurship of rural college students and the important role of entrepreneurial role models in their entrepreneurial choices. From the perspective of policymaking, first, it is necessary to improve the support policies for college students returning to their hometowns to start their own businesses, optimize the business environment, and simplify procedures. Actions such as these may help attract college students from rural areas back to their hometowns to start enterprises. Building an entrepreneurial exchange platform and inviting local successful entrepreneurs to share their entrepreneurial experience will give potential entrepreneurs the opportunity to establish connections with local role models. Second, I recommend using the media to publicize the stories of entrepreneurs or produce relevant films and literature for the public. This may encourage potential entrepreneurs to identify with remote entrepreneurs, thus stimulating their entrepreneurial intentions. The government should also strengthen the cultivation and publicity of entrepreneurial role models, guide entrepreneurial role models to assume social responsibility, and encourage entrepreneurs to act as role models, inspiring future entrepreneurs and enhancing their entrepreneurial confidence. Local entrepreneurs should be encouraged to help budding entrepreneurs solve the practical difficulties they face in preparing for entrepreneurship.
Limitations and Future Research Directions
This study has several limitations. First, the sample was not diverse, as all data were drawn from Shanxi Province in China. Future studies could collect data from different provinces or countries to enhance the diversity of the samples and improve the generalizability of the results. Second, although there was no concerning common method bias in the study, the predictor and criterion variables were obtained from the same rater, which can interfere with results. Future research could temporally separate the predictor and criterion variable measures. Third, although the results of this study indicate that entrepreneurial self-efficacy was an important mediating variable in the relationship between interest in distant entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurial intentions, there may be other mechanisms of transmission between the two variables, such as entrepreneurial passion, attitudes, and opportunity identification, which will be studied in the future.
Akerlof, G. A., & Kranton, R. E. (2000). Economics and identity. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 115(3), 715–753.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215.
Bandura, A., & Cervone, D. (1986). Differential engagement of self-reactive influences in cognitive motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 38(1), 92–113.
Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1977). Social learning theory (Vol. 1). Prentice Hall.
Basow, S. A., & Howe, K. G. (1980). Role-model influence: Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 4(4), 558–572.
Bateman, T. S., & Crant, J. M. (1993). The proactive component of organizational behavior: A measure and correlates. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 14(2), 103–118.
Baum, J. R., Locke, E. A., & Smith, K. G. (2001). A multidimensional model of venture growth. Academy of Management Journal, 44(2), 292–303.
Bell, A. P. (1970). Role modelship and interaction in adolescence and young adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 2(1), 123–128.
Bosma, N., Hessels, J., Schutjens, V., Van Praag, M., & Verheul, I. (2012). Entrepreneurship and role models. Journal of Economic Psychology, 33(2), 410–424.
Chen, C. C., Greene, P. G., & Crick, A. (1998). Does entrepreneurial self-efficacy distinguish entrepreneurs from managers? Journal of Business Venturing, 13(4), 295–316.
Chen, C. J., & Yang, J. (2022). A study on the influence of entrepreneurial role models on college students’ entrepreneurial tendency: Moderating effect based on proactive personality [In Chinese]. Journal of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics Social Science Edition, 35(4), 111–117.
Dyer, W. G., Jr., & Handler, W. (1994). Entrepreneurship and family business: Exploring the connections. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 19(1), 71–83.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50.
Frazier, B. J., & Niehm, L. S. (2006). Predicting the entrepreneurial intentions of non-business majors: A preliminary investigation. In L. A. Toombs (Ed.), USASBE/SBI Joint Conference Proceedings [CD-ROM]. Omnipress.
Gibson, D. E. (2004). Role models in career development: New directions for theory and research. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65(1), 134–156.
Harman, H. H. (1967). Modern factor analysis. University of Chicago Press.
Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sinkovics, R. R. (2009). The use of partial least squares path modeling in international marketing. In R. R. Sinkovics & P. N. Ghauri (Eds.), New challenges to international marketing: Advances in international marketing (Vol. 20, pp. 277–319). Emerald Group Publishing.
Jackson, D. L. (2003). Revisiting sample size and number of parameter estimates: Some support for the N:q hypothesis. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 10(1), 128–141.
Krueger, N. F., Jr., Reilly, M. D., & Carsrud, A. L. (2000). Competing models of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Venturing, 15, 411–432.
Krumboltz, J. D., Mitchell, A. M., & Jones, G. B. (1976). A social learning theory of career selection. The Counseling Psychologist, 6(1), 71–80.
Laspita, S., Breugst, N., Heblich, S., & Patzelt, H. (2012). Intergenerational transmission of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Venturing, 27(4), 414–435.
Laviolette, E. M., Radu Lefebvre, M., & Brunel, O. (2012). The impact of story bound entrepreneurial role models on self‐efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 18(6), 720–742.
Liñán, F., & Chen, Y.-W. (2009). Development and cross-cultural application of a specific instrument to measure entrepreneurial intentions. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 33(3), 593–617.
Liñán, F., Rodríguez-Cohard, J. C., & Rueda-Cantuche, J. M. (2011). Factors affecting entrepreneurial intentions levels: A role for education. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 7, 195–218.
Liu, D., Ye, B. J., Guo, S. Y., & Jin, X. (2016). The effect of proactive personality on college students’ entrepreneurial intentions: The mediating role of perceived entrepreneurial value [In Chinese]. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 24(5), 946–949.
Long, N., & Tian, L. F. (2023). Returning entrepreneurs’ prior experience, utilized learning, and corporate entrepreneurial patchwork: A moderated mediated effects model [In Chinese]. Soft Science, 37(1), 124–129.
Ma, H. J., Wu, J., Guo, H., & Ge, B. S. (2021). A study of improvisational behavior in entrepreneurship: Antecedents, outcomes, and boundary conditions [In Chinese]. Management World, 37(5), 211–229.
Miao, C., Qian, S., & Ma, D. (2017). The relationship between entrepreneurial self‐efficacy and firm performance: A meta‐analysis of main and moderator effects. Journal of Small Business Management, 55(1), 87–107.
Minniti, M. (2005). Entrepreneurship and network externalities. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 57(1), 1–27.
Naktiyok, A., Nur Karabey, C., & Caglar Gulluce, A. (2010). Entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions: The Turkish case. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 6, 419–435.
Nanda, R., & Sørensen, J. B. (2010). Workplace peers and entrepreneurship. Management Science, 56(7), 1116–1126.
Nowiński, W., & Haddoud, M. Y. (2019). The role of inspiring role models in enhancing entrepreneurial intention. Journal of Business Research, 96, 183–193.
Nunnally, J. C. (1978). An overview of psychological measurement. In B. B. Wolman (Ed.), Clinical diagnosis of mental disorders: A handbook (pp. 97–146). Springer.
Park, N. G., Kim, M. S., & Ko, J. W. (2015). The effect of the government’s entrepreneurial support policy on entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial intentions [In Korean]. Asia-Pacific Journal of Business Venturing and Entrepreneurship, 10(6), 89–98.
Piperopoulos, P., & Dimov, D. (2015). Burst bubbles or build steam? Entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Small Business Management, 53(4), 970–985.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J.-Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903.
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 717–731.
Scherer, R. F., Adams, J. S., Carley, S. S., & Wiebe, F. A. (1989). Role model performance effects on development of entrepreneurial career preference. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 13(3), 53–72.
Sesen, H. (2013). Personality or environment? A comprehensive study on the entrepreneurial intentions of university students. Education + Training, 55(7), 624–640.
Shang, J. Y., & Gan, Y. Q. (2009). The effect of proactive personality on college graduates’ self-efficacy in career decision-making [In Chinese]. Journal of Peking University: Natural Science Edition, 3, 548–554.
Sternberg, R. (2009). Regional dimensions of entrepreneurship. Foundations and Trends in Entrepreneurship, 5(4), 211–340.
Van Auken, H., Fry, F. L., & Stephens, P. (2006). The influence of role models on entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 11(2), 157–167.
Wang, J. (2023). Influencing factors and their hierarchical structure of rural workers’ willingness to return to their hometowns for entrepreneurship under the perspective of rural revitalization [In Chinese]. Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications (Social Science Edition), 6, 107–118.
Wang, J. H., Chang, C.-C., Yao, S.-N., & Liang, C. (2016). The contribution of self-efficacy to the relationship between personality traits and entrepreneurial intention. Higher Education, 72, 209–224.
Wang, W., & Xiang, D. P. (2023). From “de-embedding” to “re-embedding”: A study on the action paths of returning youth in rural revitalization: Based on several cases of youth returning to their hometowns for development [In Chinese]. Lanzhou Journal, 12, 101–112.
Wang, Z. L., & Xue, K. (2020). On the relationship between migrant workers’ returning home and rural revitalization [In Chinese]. Theoretical Circles, 2020(5), 63–67.
Wu, M. L. (2009). Structural equation modeling: Operations and applications of Amos [In Chinese]. Chongqing University Press.
Wyrwich, M., Stuetzer, M., & Sternberg, R. (2016). Entrepreneurial role models, fear of failure, and institutional approval of entrepreneurship: A tale of two regions. Small Business Economics, 46, 467–492.
Xie, J., & Yan, M. (2016). Active coping or avoidance? Mechanisms of proactive personality’s influence on workplace exclusion and organizational citizenship behavior [In Chinese]. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 48(10), 1314–1325.
Xie, X. D. (2019). A study of the mechanism of entrepreneurial role models’ influence on entrepreneurial intentions [In Chinese]. Zhejiang University of Technology.
Yang, C., Xie, S. H., & Gan, C. (2021). Spatial differences in entrepreneurial activities of private firms in China and the factors affecting them [In Chinese]. Economic Geography, 41(11), 141–148.
Yu, B. (2023). Evolutionary trends, driving factors and effectiveness of college students’ entrepreneurial intentions [In Chinese]. Foreign Economics and Management, 45(5), 38–52.
Zapkau, F. B., Schwens, C., Steinmetz, H., & Kabst, R. (2015). Disentangling the effect of prior entrepreneurial exposure on entrepreneurial intention. Journal of Business Research, 68(3), 639–653.
Zhang, Y. Q., An, X. X., & Zhu, M. Y. (2017). Research on executive initiative personality and business model innovation [In Chinese]. Science and Science and Technology Management, 10, 69–81.
Zhao, H., Seibert, S. E., & Hills, G. E. (2005). The mediating role of self-efficacy in the development of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(6), 1265–1272.
Zhu, H., & Zhang, J. (2014). The influence mechanism of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial intentions of undergraduate students in Beijing colleges and universities: An empirical analysis based on the perspective of student participation [In Chinese]. Tsinghua University Education Research, 35(6), 100–107.
Zhuang, J. C., & Liu, L. L. (2024). An empirical study on the influential factors of farm household yard-based entrepreneurship [In Chinese]. Journal of Yunnan University of Finance and Economics, 2024(1), 97–110.