Mitigation of problem behaviors among migrant children in China: A chain mediation model
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Cite this article:
Xie, W., Sun, Y., Xiang, C., Hu, S., & Lv, K.
(2025). Mitigation of problem behaviors among migrant children in China: A chain mediation model.
Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal,
53(3),
e13377.
Abstract
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This study explored the influence of social support on problem behaviors exhibited by migrant children, and examined the potential mediating role of interpersonal security and positive psychological capital (PsyCap). Migrant children (N = 746) and local urban children (N = 401) completed the Social Support Scale, the Interpersonal Security Scale, the Psychological Capital Questionnaire, and the Adolescent Character and Behavioral Problem Behavior Tendency Questionnaire. We compared the groups and conducted an intervariable correlational analysis of the migrant group’s results. The findings indicated that social support, interpersonal security, and PsyCap were negative predictors of problem behaviors in migrant children. Interpersonal security and PsyCap mediated the relationship between social support and problem behaviors via three pathways: interpersonal security alone, PsyCap alone, and the interpersonal security–PsyCap chain. Enhancing migrant children’s sense of interpersonal safety and building prevention-oriented positive parenting psychosocial support networks may help to reduce migrant children’s problem behaviors.
Article Highlights
- Social support reduced the risk of migrant children’s problem behaviors through the chain mediating effect of interpersonal security and positive psychological capital.
- Interpersonal security indirectly restrained problem behaviors through its effect on positive psychological capital, whereas social support had a more direct effect on interpersonal security.
- The examined factors had serial effects on the occurrence of problem behaviors among migrant children in China.
According to the Chinese National Education Development Statistical Bulletin (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2020), as of 2020 there were more than 1.43 billion migrant children, that is, people under 18 years old who have been living for more than 6 months in a city away from their rural hukou-registered place of residency (Kuang & Xu, 2017; J. Li et al., 2021). This migrant experience, which reflects a rural-to-urban demographic change, is an important life event that has been reported to have profound impacts on children’s physical and mental development (Heckman, 2006; Y. F. Li et al., 2015). It reflects the effects of population structure changes in transforming the urban–rural dual structure in China.
When migrant children do not adapt well to the urban environment, they are prone to increased internal conflict in association with psychological and behavioral changes, which may encompass problematic externalizing behaviors, including aggressive behaviors, as well as disciplinary challenges (Belhadj Kouider et al., 2014, 2015). Migrant children in China have been reported to be more likely to develop problem behaviors than are locally raised urban children (X. W. Li et al., 2008). Especially with the outbreak of COVID-19 and the ongoing measures for pandemic prevention and control, children’s growth environments may have changed in ways that threaten their physical and mental health (Schmidt et al., 2021). Migrant children are more sensitive to changes in their environment and are more likely to show signs of incompatibility with their new surroundings, which can lead to the development of problem behaviors (Su, 2023). Problem behaviors have been explained from a variety of perspectives, such as the protection-risk model of problem behavior, which includes protective factors that reduce the likelihood of problem behaviors by offering positive models, controls, and support. Conversely, risk factors increase the likelihood of problem behaviors by providing negative models, more opportunities for such behaviors, and greater personal vulnerability (Jessor et al., 2003). However, most studies have taken a deficit-focused perspective, addressing how problems worsen and how to overcome them, which may obscure the strengths of affected youth (Guerra & Bradshaw, 2008). In contrast, according to the positive youth development perspective, even the most disadvantaged youth have positive qualities, and building positive social bonds can promote their prosocial behaviors and reduce their risk of developing conduct problems (Butts et al., 2010).
Social Support and Problem Behavior
Children grow up in a complex socioecological environment wherein they may interact with parents or guardians, siblings, extended family members, peers, and teachers (Franco & Levitt, 1997). This environment is a dynamic system composed of specific relationships and connections between domains within it. Building relationships is a basic human need and relationships have been described as the basis for maintaining human social ecology (Baumeister & Leary, 2017). Social support is important for interpersonal interactions and relationship building. Supportive social interactions can reduce individuals’ perception of intergroup differences and thus may facilitate the integration of migrant children (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2001). Conversely, the severing of social ties has been reported to reduce empathy and the display of prosocial behaviors (H. Zhang et al., 2015). Furthermore, it has been suggested that social support may reduce the occurrence of problem behaviors through direct effects on problem behaviors (main effect model) as well as through indirect effects on intrinsic psychological mechanisms (buffer effect model; X. Liu et al., 2007). Relocation can disrupt children’s relationships and connections within social domains, which may produce socioecological destabilization and thus affect their mental health and social behavior (Anderson et al., 2014). Social support is an important factor in maintaining social and ecological stability; as such, it can help stabilize children’s ecosystems and prevent the emergence of problem behaviors.
Interpersonal Security and Problem Behavior
Interpersonal security is an internal psychological factor that affects individual social ecology and plays an important protective role in interpersonal relationships. Insecurity regarding interpersonal relationships can lead to negative emotional outcomes, including depression (Fan et al., 2021). Conversely, a sense of security can improve one’s psychological defense mechanisms. Feeling supported and cared for in relationships can induce a strong sense of interpersonal security in individuals (Mikulincer et al., 2005), which serves as a protective factor against despair, suicidal ideation, and behavioral problems (Iliceto et al., 2020). Moreover, a sense of security can promote prosocial behavior, including the willingness to help suffering individuals and the willingness to act when a situation involves an individual to whom one has an established secure attachment (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2005). In contrast, individuals with low interpersonal security may exhibit less prosocial behavior or even problematic behavior. Migrant children have been found to perceive less security than do local urban children (Shi et al., 2009), and the migrant experience has been reported to be related to a reduced sense of security (Dong et al., 2015). Accordingly, the establishment of interpersonal security may serve as an important protective factor for migrant children during the process of adaptation to a new environment. Thus far, there has been limited application of interpersonal security theory to the investigation of problem behaviors in migrant children.
H. Zhang et al. (2015) found that higher interpersonal security was associated with reduced dehumanization of others, which, in turn, reduced harsh treatment of others, and that interpersonal security fostered by safe and warm social interactions, that is, social support, led to a greater sense of belonging. Indeed, experiences that evoke the security of social connections, such as those associated with nostalgia and empathy, may reduce boundaries between oneself and others and promote prosocial behavior, thus likely having an inhibiting influence on aggression (X. Zhou et al., 2012). For migrant children in particular, the sense of security provided by social support may help them to feel less alienated in a new environment and to adapt more easily.
The Mediating Role of Psychological Capital
The term positive psychological capital (PsyCap) has been used to describe the developmentally derived characteristics of a positive psychological state (Liao et al., 2015), including self-efficacy, hope, optimism, and resilience (Luthans et al., 2007). Previously, PsyCap has been reported to contribute to the social adaptation of migrant children (Yang, 2018). Disadvantaged children with high levels of PsyCap engage in more positive cognition, are more adaptive to life, and adjust better to negative emotions, thus feeling more happiness (Zhu et al., 2021). In particular, PsyCap interventions can activate individuals’ cognitive, emotional, and behavioral processes, and change their views on the influence of external conditions.
Scarcity theory (de Bruijn & Antonides, 2022) indicates that migrant children focus their attention on aspects related to their low socioeconomic status and the scarcity they experience. This preoccupation consumes a significant amount of their time, resulting in suboptimal performance (Mani et al., 2013) on subsequent tasks and leading to short-sighted decisions (Shah et al., 2012). Due to persistent cognitive inertia, individuals in scarcity situations are more prone to heightened levels of attention; specifically, focusing on financial concerns such as costs and affordability. These heightened attentional levels are difficult to suppress and can even alter their cognitive associations (Shah et al., 2018) Therefore, for individuals who have endured prolonged poverty, scarcity transcends a mere perception of their current circumstances and evolves into a pervasive state of mind, ultimately influencing their cognitive and decision-making behaviors (Mani et al., 2013; Shah et al., 2012).
PsyCap has been reported to correlate directly and positively with social support, and directly and negatively with problem behaviors, respectively, as well as mediating the relationship between social support and problem behaviors (Xie & Ye, 2020). It has also been found to be related to perceptions of safety (S. F. Liu, 2014), including job insecurity (Du, 2019). More specifically, PsyCap and security have been reported to act simultaneously as mediators that influence high-performance work systems and creativity implementation (Agarwal & Farndale, 2017). The PsyCap elements of hope and self-efficacy have been found to mediate the effects of individual insecurity and stress on cognition, helping to mitigate the negative impact of stress (Wen et al., 2021). This suggests that PsyCap may be a cognitive mediator that influences situational perceptions (interpersonal security) and behavior (problem behavior).
While relevant research has shown that problem behaviors are related to social support, interpersonal security, and PsyCap, these relationships need further clarification and integration. Thus, we explored protective factors against problem behaviors in migrant children, focusing on positive social ecological environments and psychological qualities from the ecological perspective of positive child–adolescent development, which highlights the interconnectedness of social support, PsyCap, and interpersonal security in reducing problem behaviors. We formed the following three hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1: Social support, interpersonal security, and positive psychological capital will be negative predictors of migrant children’s problem behaviors.
Hypothesis 2: Social support will act as a mediator of the relationship between interpersonal security and positive psychological capital among migrant children.
Hypothesis 3: Social support will influence migrant children’s problem behaviors through the chain mediators of interpersonal security and positive psychological capital.
Method
Participants and Procedure
This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Wenzhou Medical University. The questionnaires were distributed by the school, and all parents were informed of the research purpose. Children completed the questionnaire only after reading the informed consent form and raising no objections. Following the distribution of questionnaires to randomly selected primary and secondary schools in Ningbo City, China, we collected 1,147 completed forms between December 2021 and April 2022. Among the respondents, 746 were migrant children and 401 were local urban children. The migrant sample comprised 420 (56.30%) boys and 326 (43.70%) girls with a mean age of 12.78 years (SD = 1.86, range = 10–18). Most migrant children (86.46%) were living with their parents; 22.65% had no siblings. The local urban sample comprised 184 (45.89%) boys and 217 (54.11%) girls with a mean age of 12.89 years (SD = 2.17, range = 10–18). Similar to the migrant group, most local urban children (80.30%) lived with their parents; 22.94% had no siblings.
Perceived family economic levels were measured using the method described by Wang et al. (2010), spanning four areas (clothing, food, housing, and entertainment) on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). A sample item is “My family cannot provide enough money for me to buy the clothes I like.” Ratings are reversed and summed to determine the total score for each group. Higher scores indicate less family financial stress and better material resources. Perceived family economic level obtained did not differ significantly between the migrant group (M = 16.91, SD = 4.77) and the local urban group (M = 16.72, SD = 4.67).
Measures
Problem Behaviors
We used the 14-item Conduct Problem Tendency Inventory (J. T. Zhang et al., 2009), which comprises three dimensions (social norm violation tendency, addiction tendency, aggression addiction), to assess problem behaviors. Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (completely). A sample item is “While I am in class, I always want to go out and surf the internet.” Higher scale scores indicate a greater tendency to engage in problematic behaviors. Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale in this study was .93, and for the subscales Cronbach’s alpha ranged between .86 and .93.
Social Support
We measured social support with the 17-item Social Support Scale (Ye & Dai, 2008), which has three dimensions (subjective support, objective support, support utilization). Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (completely). A sample item is “Most of my classmates care about me.” Ratings are summed, with higher scale scores indicating a higher level of social support. Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale in this study was .94, and for the subscales Cronbach’s alpha ranged between .85 and .89.
Interpersonal Security
We assessed interpersonal security with the interpersonal security subscale of the Security Sense Scale (Zhong & Lijuan, 2004). Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (completely) to 5 (not at all). A sample item is “I’ve never dared to speak my mind.” A higher score indicates a higher level of personal security. Cronbach’s alpha in this study was .84.
Positive Psychological Capital
Participants completed the Psychological Capital Scale (K. Zhang et al., 2010), which consists of 26 items designed to evaluate four PsyCap dimensions: self-efficacy, resilience, hope, and optimism. Each item is rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (completely). A sample item is “A lot of people appreciate my talent.” Ratings are summed to obtain a total score. Higher scale scores are interpreted as indicating greater PsyCap. In this study Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale was .91, and for the subscales Cronbach’s alpha ranged between .71 and .82.
Data Analysis
We conducted a descriptive statistical analysis via independent samples t tests, and also performed common method bias testing and correlation analyses in SPSS 24.0. Harman’s single-factor test was used to test for bias of interindividual variables, and was controlled for by anonymous data collection and reverse description of some items. Common method bias was evaluated according to the critical standard (H. Zhou & Long, 2004).
Mediation effect testing was performed via structural equation modeling in Mplus 8.3. In addition to χ2/df values we assessed the mediation model fit by calculating root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA), comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), and standardized root-mean-square residual (SRMR) values. Further mediation effect testing was performed using the bias-corrected bootstrapping method (1,000 resamples).
Results
Psychometric Differences Between Migrant Children and Local Urban Children
As reported in Table 1, independent samples t tests demonstrated that, compared to the local urban group, the migrant group had less social support overall (total score) and less subjective support (subscale) specifically, as well as a lower sense of interpersonal security. Regarding PsyCap, the migrant group had lower Psychological Capital Scale total scores as well as lower self-efficacy and resilience subscale scores. Finally, in comparing problem behaviors between the groups, we found that the migrant group had higher Conduct Problem Tendency Inventory total scores than did the local urban group, as well as higher scores on all three subscales.
Table 1. Comparison of Scale Scores Between Migrant and Local Urban Groups
Note. Ns = 746 and 401 for the migrant and local urban groups, respectively.
* p < .05. ** p < .01. ***p < .001.
Common Method Bias
Harman’s single-factor test showed that there were 11 factors with eigenvalues greater than 1. The first factor explained only 23.74% of the variance, which is less than the critical standard of 40%, indicating that common method bias was not a serious problem in this study.
Intervariable Correlation Analyses
Correlation analyses within the migrant children group demonstrated robust pairwise correlations among all dimensions of social support (subjective support, objective support, support utilization), interpersonal security, PsyCap (self-efficacy, resilience, hope, optimism), and problem behaviors (violation, addiction, aggression; see Table 2a). The four dimensions of local urban children’s PsyCap were not significantly correlated with the other factors. Additionally, subjective support was not significantly related to addiction tendency (see Table 2b).
Table 2a. Correlations Among Psychometric Variables for Migrant Children
Note. N = 746.
Table 2b. Correlations Among Psychometric Variables for Local Urban Children
Note. N = 401.
Direct and Indirect Relationships Among Study Variables in Migrant Children
Structural equation modeling was first conducted with all study variables (psychometric scores) included in the model. The initial model showed a good fit to the data, χ2/df = 6.30, RMSEA = .084, CFI = .94, TLI = .92, SRMR = .056. A modified model was generated by adding a covariance path between the error terms for the variables of social norm violation tendency and aggression tendency, which resulted in a good model fit, χ2/df = 5.19, RMSEA = .075, CFI = .96, TLI = .94, SRMR = .048.
The regression coefficients obtained with the modified model were all significant. Social support was a positive predictor of total scores for interpersonal security (β = .559, p < .001) and PsyCap (β = 0.824, p < .001), and a negative predictor of total scores for problem behaviors (β = −.130, p < .05). Interpersonal security was a positive predictor of PsyCap (β = .357, p < .001) and a negative predictor of problem behaviors (β = −.136, p < .001). PsyCap was a negative predictor of problem behaviors (β = −.140, p < .01).
Mediation effects testing conducted with the bias-corrected bootstrapping method yielded good model fit indices, χ2/df = 6.75, RMSEA = .088, CFI = .96, TLI = .94, SRMR = .048. The indirect effect of social support on problem behaviors as mediated by interpersonal safety was −0.076, 95% confidence interval (CI) [−0.137, −0.037], and as mediated by PsyCap it was −0.115, 95% CI [−0.216, −0.033]. Additionally, the indirect effect of social support on problem behaviors through the interpersonal safety–PsyCap mediation chain was −0.028, 95% CI [−0.057, −0.009]. None of the CIs included 0, supporting all three hypotheses (see Table 3). The chain mediation model is shown in Figure 1.
Table 3. Direct, Indirect, and Total Effects of Social Support on Problem Behaviors
Note. PsyCap = positive psychological capital; CI = confidence interval; LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit.
Figure 1. Chain Mediating Role of Interpersonal Security and Positive Psychological Capital in the Relationship Between Social Support and Problem Behaviors
Note. PsyCap = positive psychological capital.
Discussion
The results obtained in this study supported all three of our hypotheses. Consistent with previous studies (He & Zhang, 2019; Y. S. Huang et al., 2010; Xie & Ye, 2020), we found that social support, interpersonal security, and PsyCap were negative predictors of problem behaviors among Chinese migrant children. Additionally, social support affected PsyCap through interpersonal security and affected problem behaviors through the interpersonal security–PsyCap chain. This is partially consistent with previous research. For instance, Xie and Ye (2020) found that social support mitigated university students’ problem behaviors through the mediating role of psychological capital, and we found that this effect also holds true for migrant children. Furthermore, similar to He and Zhang (2019) and Y. S. Huang et al. (2010), we observed that interpersonal security, or a sense of security, reduced the occurrence of problem behaviors as a mediating factor.
Our data address migrant children’s problem behaviors from an ecological perspective that focuses on positive developmental influences. We considered social support to be an external ecological resource that helps create a stable and nurturing environment for migrant children, mitigating the adverse effects of environmental instability and social exclusion, while interpersonal security and PsyCap were considered to be internal resources that act as buffers against psychological distress and help promote adaptive coping strategies. We incorporated a broad network of relationships that are important to children, including objective support and subjective support from relationships, and support utilization. We found that social support, interpersonal security, and psychological capital worked together to prevent or reduce the occurrence of problem behaviors in migrant children.
Our findings are consistent with the supposition that social support may act through PsyCap, which is not a fixed state, but can be developed, invested, and managed (Luthans et al., 2004). L. Huang and Zhang (2022) argued that there is an intrinsic relationship between sense of social support and psychological capital, suggesting that social support can positively influence students’ psychological capital, providing favorable conditions for its enhancement. Thus, by increasing social support or helping individuals perceive more social support, the PsyCap of migrant children can be enhanced, compensating for their lower levels of human and social capital. Our results also suggest that social support may reduce the risk of problem behaviors through the chain mediating effect of interpersonal security and PsyCap; thus, efforts to improve the internal and external ecological environments of migrant children may be protective and thereby reduce their risk of developing problem behaviors. We found that interpersonal security restrained problem behaviors indirectly through its effect on PsyCap, which suggests that social support had a more direct effect on interpersonal security than on PsyCap. Our finding may also reflect a serial influence by which these factors affect the occurrence of problem behaviors. For example, external stimuli associated with social support may enhance individuals’ perception of interpersonal security, leading to a cognitive adjustment associated with greater PsyCap that reduces the occurrence of problem behaviors.
Practical Implications
Our study has revealed several effective approaches to improving the problem behaviors of migrant children through influencing their social support, interpersonal security, and PsyCap. First, the results indicate that enhancing social support networks is crucial for reducing behavioral problems among migrant children. Therefore, schools, communities, and policymakers should provide family support services and offer platforms that foster connections between migrant children and their peers. Helping migrant children better perceive and utilize social support can enhance their interpersonal security and psychological capital, thereby improving their mental health and behavioral outcomes. Second, schools should create an inclusive and safe environment where migrant children can form meaningful social connections with both peers and teachers. Implementing social skills training and peer support programs can help improve migrant children’s sense of interpersonal security, which, in turn, will better equip them to handle the challenges of migration and adaptation to new environments. Additionally, schools should incorporate into the curriculum programs that enhance psychological capital, and offer extracurricular activities focusing on improving self-efficacy, hope, resilience, and optimism. By teaching coping strategies and resilience-building techniques, migrant children can be empowered to handle adversity and integrate more successfully into school and society.
Limitations and Future Research Directions
This study has limitations worth noting. First, only school-aged children were included in the study, although the numbers of younger migrant children are increasing. According to the 2018 Migrant Worker Monitoring Survey Report (National Bureau of Statistics, 2019), migrant children aged 3–5 years accounted for 83.5% of school (including preschool) enrollments in China. Because the social support framework, psychological development, and socialization needs of preschool children are quite different from those of older children, there remains a need to determine how social support affects their behavior through intrinsic psychological factors. Second, we used scales and questionnaires to evaluate internal psychological process variables. Our conclusions should be confirmed with other methods, including manipulation of relevant variables in the laboratory, when possible and ethical, to explore putative causal relationships.
Conclusion
In conclusion, we found that greater social support was associated with reduced problem behaviors in migrant children in China, with interpersonal safety and PsyCap acting as mediators of this relationship. Applying the perspective of positive development, these findings suggest that building positive social support networks and cultivating PsyCap may help to reduce the occurrence of problem behaviors in migrant children.
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Table 1. Comparison of Scale Scores Between Migrant and Local Urban Groups
Note. Ns = 746 and 401 for the migrant and local urban groups, respectively.
* p < .05. ** p < .01. ***p < .001.
Table 2a. Correlations Among Psychometric Variables for Migrant Children
Note. N = 746.
Table 2b. Correlations Among Psychometric Variables for Local Urban Children
Note. N = 401.
Table 3. Direct, Indirect, and Total Effects of Social Support on Problem Behaviors
Note. PsyCap = positive psychological capital; CI = confidence interval; LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit.
Figure 1. Chain Mediating Role of Interpersonal Security and Positive Psychological Capital in the Relationship Between Social Support and Problem Behaviors
Note. PsyCap = positive psychological capital.
The authors thank everyone who provided assistance in the preparation of this paper, along with the participants and the institutions and organizations involved.
Wenlan Xie conceptualized and designed this study, collected the data, and wrote the draft manuscript. Yuqi Sun drafted and revised the final manuscript. Chunye Xiang revised, proofread, and submitted the final manuscript. Shiyi Hu collected the data and revised the manuscript. Kezhen Lv revised the draft manuscript and proofread the final manuscript.
The raw data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author.
As at the date of publication, the following authors’ affiliations are: Yuqi Sun, Zhejiang Provincial Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, The Affiliated Wenzhou Kangning Hospital, School of Mental Health, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, People’s Republic of China; Chunye Xiang, Songyang Campus, Lishui University, People’s Republic of China; Kezhen Lv, Zhejiang Provincial Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, The Affiliated Wenzhou Kangning Hospital, School of Mental Health, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, People’s Republic of China.
Yuqi Sun, Zhejiang Provincial Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, The Affiliated Wenzhou Kangning Hospital, School of Mental Health, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China. Email: [email protected]
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