Article Highlights
- Rejection and overprotection by mothers both increased adolescents’ deviant peer affiliation.
- Teacher–student relationship and violence exposure played different mediating roles in the effect of a mother’s rejection/overprotection on adolescents’ deviant peer affiliation.
- Different negative parenting styles had different effects on adolescents’ deviant peer affiliation.
Adolescent deviant peer affiliation refers to the relationship between adolescents and their peers who engage in bad behaviors (Zhu et al., 2016), including bullying (Gao et al., 2022), substance abuse (Yoon et al., 2019), crime (Lu et al., 2020), problematic Internet use (H. Li et al., 2022), and skipping school (Zhu et al., 2016). Deviant peer affiliation is also related to adolescents’ internalization problems, such as depression (S. Li et al., 2022), sleep disorders (Z. Bao et al., 2022), and mental health problems (Gillies et al., 2017). In addition, deviant peer affiliation affects teenagers’ academic adaptation (Sun et al., 2021) and other development problems through behavior imitation and learning. Therefore, research on the risk factors and mechanisms for forming deviant peer affiliation can help parents, teachers, and social workers prevent these problems.
Researchers have found that family factors influence teenagers’ deviant peer affiliation. Emotional abuse of children by their parents or guardians (S. Li et al., 2022), interparental conflict (Lu et al., 2020), and parents’ psychological (Lin et al., 2022) and behavioral (Chen et al., 2021) control over adolescents can significantly predict deviant peer affiliation. In addition to the direct influence of parents’ control on deviant peer affiliation, their control may also affect teenagers’ deviant peer affiliation indirectly. Both intrusive (Soenens et al., 2007) and permissive (Hinnant et al., 2016) parenting styles increase the risk of teenagers’ deviant peer affiliation. Many studies have been carried out in this field, but to date no research has explored whether different negative parenting styles have different effects on teenagers’ deviant peer affiliation. Some studies have shown that when mothers’ use of both authoritative and permissive child-rearing patterns are included in a model, the authoritative rearing pattern can significantly predict adolescents’ positive peer relationships, whereas a permissive rearing pattern has no significant predictive effect on adolescents’ positive peer relationships (Llorca et al., 2017). These results show that different maternal child-rearing patterns may have different effects on adolescent behavior. Studying whether different maternal negative parenting styles have different effects on teenagers’ deviant peer affiliation can provide a theoretical basis for more detailed intervention measures to prevent and treat deviant peer affiliation among adolescents. From the perspective of attachment theory (Bowlby, 1988), the purpose of this study was to investigate whether there are differences in the effects of mother’s rejection and mother’s overprotection on teenagers’ deviant peer affiliation. We also explored the potential mechanism of how mothers’ rejection and overprotection affect teenagers’ deviant peer affiliation.
Relationship of Mother’s Rejection and Overprotection With Adolescent Deviant Peer Affiliation
According to attachment theory, when mothers and fathers have a negative parenting style this often leads to their child forming an unsafe attachment (Bowlby, 1988), which makes it difficult for them to establish close relationships with others. It also increases the likelihood of the adolescent establishing a relationship with peers with bad behavior (Chow et al., 2017) because unsafe attachment leads to rebellious psychology to authority figures such as parents and teachers, and it is easier to establish relationships with peers with bad behaviors (e.g., truancy, theft). Therefore, when adolescents have an unsafe attachment, this increases the risk of their connecting with peers with bad behavior. Mother’s rejection is a negative parenting style that mainly refers to the mother’s disregard and/or neglect, attacking or corporal punishment, and/or severe denial of her children, such as “denying my success” and “often criticizing me for being lazy and useless” (Papadaki & Giovazolias, 2015). Researchers have found that mother rejection can affect adolescents’ deviant peer affiliation both directly and also indirectly through impulsivity, which is the tendency of an individual to respond quickly and in unplanned ways to internal or external stimuli, without considering the negative impact of these reactions on the self or others. Impulsive adolescents tend to ignore the consequences of their behaviors, so they are more likely to establish relationships with peers who exhibit bad behaviors (Uludagli & Sayil, 2013). Previous research has shown that the mother–child relationship has a significant impact on the formation of intimate relationships among adolescents and that exclusion sensitivity plays an intermediary role in this link (Goldner et al., 2019). Exclusion sensitivity is the tendency of individuals to overreact to the perception of being rejected by others. High exclusion sensitivity leads to behavioral and psychological maladjustment of adolescents, causing them to be unable to integrate well into the school class and increasing the likelihood of them establishing contact with adolescents with bad behaviors who are outside the group. Rejection by the mother can lead to various psychological and behavioral problems in adolescents, including maladjustment (Miranda et al., 2016) and anxiety (Yazdkhasti & Harizuka, 2006), which are risk factors for deviant peer affiliation.
Mother overprotection refers to the mother’s attempt to interfere excessively with her child’s behavior, thoughts, and emotions and to encourage the child’s dependence on her (Wood et al., 2003). Empirical studies have shown that maternal overprotection is significantly correlated with children’s anxiety (Capriole-Hall et al., 2020), maladjustment, and ability frustration of the psychological needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence (Van Petegem et al., 2020), which may indirectly affect deviant peer affiliation. Soenens et al. (2007) found that intrusive parenting significantly increases the risk of deviant peer affiliation, and excessive psychological control over children that infringes on their private world will increase the risk of deviant peer affiliation. In research on Chinese teenagers, W.-N. Bao et al. (2017) found that coercion parenting, such as forcing children to do something by intimidation, can significantly predict individual adolescents’ deviant peer affiliation, and Wang et al. (2020) reported that a negative parenting style is significantly correlated with adolescents’ deviant peer affiliation.
Although both rejection and overprotection by mothers affect deviant peer affiliation, their potential mechanisms and effects may be different. In a longitudinal study Llorca et al. (2017) found that authoritative mother-rearing patterns can significantly predict adolescents’ positive peer relations, whereas permissive mother-rearing patterns do not significantly predict adolescents’ positive peer relations. In research on adult crime, Simons and Sutton (2021) found that a high-demand parenting style can significantly reduce the risk of adult crime, whereas a low-demand parenting style significantly increases the risk of adult crime. The average score on a child-rearing style scale was used as the distinguishing point for dividing high and low demand levels. Associating with peers with bad habits is an important risk factor for juvenile delinquency (Zimmerman & Messner, 2011). Each of these studies shows that different parenting styles have different effects on adolescents’ behavior. As two different negative parenting styles, mother rejection and mother overprotection may cause adolescents to form unsafe attachment and decrease their adaptability, which increases the chances of them establishing contact with peers with bad behaviors who are out of the group, and reduces their resistance to the assimilation of a violent environment, which will lead to an increased risk of interactions with peers who display deviant behavior. Therefore, we proposed the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1: Mother rejection or mother overprotection will have a significant negative impact on adolescents’ deviant peer affiliation.
Mediating Role of Violence Exposure
Violence exposure refers to the violent stimulus clues that individuals see, hear, contact, or experience in their daily environment (Butcher et al., 2015). According to social learning theory (Solakoglu & Yuksek, 2020), learning from and imitating role models is an important reason for individual behavior. Individuals exposed to violence for a long time have a higher risk of contacting peers with bad habits (Lin et al., 2020) than do individuals with less exposure. At the same time, the imitation of violent behavior makes these individuals more inclined to establish contact with their peers who display the same violent behavior. Thus, the risk of engaging in a relationship with a deviant peer is greatly increased and the risk of adolescent deviant peer communication increases (Brady, 2017). In a study conducted with Chinese teenagers, S. Li et al. (2022) showed that emotional abuse in childhood can significantly predict deviant peer affiliation later. Further, Lin et al. (2020) found that violence exposure was a direct risk factor affecting adolescent deviant peer affiliation.
Negative parenting styles, such as mother rejection and mother overprotection, may lead to children being more exposed to violence. There is a significant relationship between the mother’s neglect of child supervision and adolescents’ secondary exposure to community violence (Zimmerman, 2014). Parental media monitoring was found to be significantly related to the lower level of prosocial violence media contact among adolescents (Holmgren et al., 2019). At the same time, in empirical research Smith and Myron-Wilson (1998) found that overprotection of children makes them more likely to become victims of violence and is significantly related to enacting peer violence (Salzinger et al., 2002). Excessive parental protection also increases the harm children suffer when they experience violence (Plexousakis et al., 2019), which may be related to the fragile psychological resilience of children caused by excessive parental protection. When mothers adopt negative parenting practices, they do not cultivate their children's ability to avoid and resist the impact of violent environments (Martinez et al., 2019). This makes their children more likely to be exposed to violence and the harm of the violence is also more serious. In a violent environment, children are more likely to seek contact with peers who have bad habits. Therefore, we proposed the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2: Violence exposure will play a mediating role in the effects of mother rejection or overprotection on adolescents’ deviant peer affiliation.
Mediating Role of the Teacher–Student Relationship
The teacher–student relationship refers to a special interpersonal relationship formed and established between teacher and students through mutual influence, that is, the interaction between teachers’ teaching and students’ behavior reaction in common school educational activities (Fisher et al., 1998). A good teacher–student relationship can effectively reduce the risk of deviant peer affiliation among teenagers (Gao et al., 2022). According to attachment theory (Bowlby, 1988), establishing an intimate relationship with important others can effectively reduce various development problems of teenagers (Pianta, 2001). For students, teachers are important others and form one of the most important interpersonal relationships. A good teacher–student relationship can meet the individual’s need to satisfy the psychological needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence (Froiland et al., 2019), and provides another channel to monitor teenagers who are forming deviant peer affiliations. Empirical research has shown that when the teacher–student relationship is good, the closeness between teachers and students characterized by the sense of teacher care and support acts as an important protective factor and proximal influencing factor to reduce deviant peer affiliation (Jia et al., 2017).
We speculated that the relationship between teachers and students may play a mediating role in the impact of rejection or overprotection by mothers on adolescents’ deviant peer affiliation. According to attachment theory (Bowlby, 1988), the teacher–student relationship is an extension of the attachment relationship between parents and children, reflecting the emotional connection between the two parties, and plays an important role in shaping students’ school experience and adaptation that can affect the development in the school environment. A mother’s rejection or excessive protection will lead to unsafe attachment by children, which will make it difficult for individuals to establish a good teacher–student relationship with teachers (Bowlby, 1988), and a poor teacher–student relationship will significantly increase the risk of deviant peer affiliation (Jia et al., 2017).
Luo et al. (2020) showed that parental emotional warmth significantly predicts a good teacher–student relationship, whereas parental punishment is significantly negatively correlated with a good teacher–student relationship (Luo et al., 2021). Therefore, we proposed the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 3: The teacher–student relationship will play a mediating role in the impact of mother’s rejection or overprotection on adolescents’ deviant peer affiliation.
Based on the three hypotheses, we constructed a mediation effect diagram, as shown in Figure 1.
Method
Participants and Procedure
We randomly selected 856 students from four high schools in eastern China to participate in the study. The students volunteered to complete the survey and signed a written consent form. This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Ludong University, China. The participants completed the pencil and paper survey at school in the classroom. Students ranged in age from 16 to 21 years (M = 17.83, SD = 0.86) and included 465 boys and young men (54.32%) and 391 girls and young women (45.68%).
Measures
Mother Rejection and Overprotection
The Chinese version of the simplified Parenting Style Scale (J. Jiang et al., 2010) was used to measure the two subscales of mother rejection and mother overprotection. There are 14 items in total, six in the rejection dimension (e.g., “Mother often loses her temper for reasons I don’t know”) and eight in the overprotection dimension (e.g., “I hope my mother doesn’t worry too much about what I’m doing”). Respondents rate the items on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 4 (always). The average score is calculated for each dimension. The higher the score, the higher the degree to which the mother uses this parenting style. In this study Cronbach’s alpha reliability for maternal rejection was .78 and that for maternal overprotection was .73.
Violence Exposure
We adopted Zhang’s revised Chinese version of Schwartz and Proctor’s Community Violence Questionnaire (Schwartz & Proctor, 2000; Zhang et al., 2017), which comprises 25 items to investigate the exposure of individuals to violence in their daily life (e.g., “Something was stolen in my neighborhood”). Respondents rate the items on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (often). The higher the score, the more violent stimuli to which an individual has been exposed to in daily life. Cronbach’s alpha reliability in this study was .96.
Teacher–Student Relationship
The Teacher–Student Relationship Questionnaire—Chinese version (G. Jiang, 2004) was used to measure the teacher–student relationships of the participants. This scale is mainly designed to measure students’ perceived positive relationship with their head teachers. There are eight items (e.g., “The teacher is an easy person to get close to”), which are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). The higher the score, the more positive is the student’s perception of their relationship with the teacher. In this study Cronbach’s alpha reliability was .97.
Deviant Peer Affiliation
We adopted the Chinese version of the Deviant Peer Affiliation Questionnaire (D. Li et al., 2013), which comprises eight items (e.g., “How many of your friends got drunk in the last year?”). Deviant behaviors include smoking, drunkenness, robbery, blackmail, cheating in examinations, theft, Internet addiction, and skipping classes. Respondents rate the items on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = none to 5 = all. The average score of all items is calculated. The higher the score, the more deviant companions an individual has. In this study Cronbach’s alpha reliability was .93.
Data Analysis
We used SPSS 25.0 for analyzing descriptive statistics and conducting correlation tests. We used Mplus 7.4 for mediation effects testing, collecting 1,000 bootstrapped resamples and assessing the hypothesized model comprising the variables of mother rejection, mother overprotection, violence exposure, teacher–student relationship, and deviant peer affiliation.
Results
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations
We applied Harman’s single-factor test to check for common method deviation. The results showed that the characteristic roots of the 16 factors were greater than 1. The interpretation rate of the first factor was 22.44%, which is lower than the critical value of 40%, indicating that there is no serious common method bias.
The means, standard deviations, and pairwise correlations of the study variables are shown in Table 1. The results of correlation analysis showed that mother rejection, mother overprotection, violence exposure, and deviant peer affiliation were all significantly positively correlated. The teacher–student relationship was significantly negatively correlated with the other variables.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics and Correlations Among Variables
Mediation Analyses
The mediating effect model is shown in Figure 2. After controlling for the influence of gender and age, the path of mother overprotection → teacher–student relationship and the path of mother overprotection → adolescent deviant peer affiliation were not significant. The other paths were significant. Thus, mother overprotection affected deviant peer affiliation only through the mediating effect of violence exposure, which fully supports Hypothesis 1.
The mediating effect test results for violence exposure show that the mediating effects of violence exposure in mother rejection → deviant peer affiliation and mother overprotection → deviant peer affiliation were significant. This result supported Hypothesis 2. The test results for the mediating effect of teacher–student relationship show that the mediating effect was significant in the mother rejection → deviant peer affiliation link, but it is not significant in the mother overprotection → deviant peer affiliation link. This result partially supported Hypothesis 3.
The mediating effect analysis results are shown in Table 2. The mediating effect of teacher–student relationship and violence exposure on mother rejection and adolescent deviant peer affiliation was significant, accounting for 35.32% and 16.51% of the total effect, respectively. The mediating effect of teacher–student relationship was significantly higher than that of violence exposure (b = .12, t = 2.04, p = .04). Violence exposure had a significant mediating effect between mother overprotection and adolescent deviant peer affiliation, accounting for 51.11% of the total effect. The mediating effect of teacher–student relationship between mother overprotection and adolescent deviant peer affiliation was not significant.
Figure 2. Standardized Results for Mediation Model
Note. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.
Table 2. Indirect Effects of Violence Exposure and Teacher–Student Relationship on the Link Between Mother Rejection or Overprotection and Adolescent Deviant Peer Affiliation
Discussion
We examined the mediating effects of violence exposure and the teacher–student relationship in the impact of mother rejection or mother overprotection on adolescents’ deviant peer affiliation. The results of our mediation effects model show that both mother rejection and overprotection significantly predicted deviant peer affiliation of adolescents. Mother rejection affected adolescents’ deviant peer affiliation through violence exposure and the quality of the teacher–student relationship. In the relationship between mother overprotection and deviant peer affiliation of adolescents, we found that only violence exposure played a significant mediating role, whereas the mediating effect of teacher–student relationship was not significant. These findings help in understanding how a mother’s negative parenting style affects the deviant peer affiliation of adolescents.
The results of a correlation analysis showed that mother rejection and overprotection were both significantly correlated with adolescent deviant peer affiliation. After controlling for gender and age, mother rejection directly affected deviant peer affiliation, and there was also an indirect effect through the mediators of both violence exposure and the teacher–student relationship. This is in line with the findings of Wang et al. (2020). A new finding in our study is that mother rejection and overprotection had different effects on adolescents’ deviant peer affiliation. This result may be due to the types of unsafe attachment caused by rejection and overprotection. According to attachment theory, negative parenting styles often lead to unsafe attachment (Bowlby, 1988). Unsafe attachment types include avoidant and rebellious attachment. Individuals who form an avoidant attachment have difficulty in establishing close peer relationships, which leads to individual emotional needs not being satisfied. In the process of pursuing the satisfaction of emotional needs, the consequences of some behaviors may be neglected, which makes it easier for them to establish relationships with peers with bad behaviors (Bond, 2009). Individuals who form rebellious attachment are more likely to rebel against their parents’ teaching and arrangements, which increases the risk of them forming deviant peer affiliation. Both attachment types increase the adolescent’s risk of deviant peer affiliation.
Both mother rejection and overprotection are negative parenting styles, but they have different effects on the deviant peer affiliation of adolescents. Mother rejection is more likely to cause avoidant attachment, whereas overprotection is more likely to cause rebellious attachment. Our results support the view that different negative parenting styles have different effects on adolescent deviant peer affiliation, which provides new understanding of the topic. Future research on negative parenting styles and deviant peer affiliation should be more detailed. At the same time, our results also provide the corresponding theoretical basis for intervention. For children with different parental rearing styles, corresponding intervention measures should be tailored.
We found that violence exposure acted as a mediator in the relationships of both mother rejection and mother overprotection with adolescent deviant peer affiliation, which is consistent with the findings of previous studies (Aceves & Cookston, 2007; Lin et al., 2020). In our study violence exposure played a partial mediating role between mother rejection and deviant peer affiliation. This may be because the mother’s rejection of the child will lead to direct exposure to violence. Mother rejection includes neglect, excessive corporal punishment, denial of the child’s success, and unfounded criticism that children are lazy and useless, which lead to mother not monitoring the safety of the child’s environment, expose the child to a violent family environment, and greatly increase the risk of the child’s exposure to violence (Zimmerman, 2014). Children who are often exposed to daily violence will imitate this behavior and engage with violent peers, which increases the risk of deviant peer affiliation. In this study we also found that violence exposure played a complete mediating role in the relationship of mother overprotection and deviant peer affiliation, which shows that mother overprotection mainly affects deviant peer affiliation through the mediating role of violence exposure. This result stresses the importance of violence exposure in the relationship between negative parenting style and deviant peer affiliation. Overprotection may arouse the child’s tendency to rebel, leading to an increased risk of active exposure to violence in wanting to establish relationships with their peers with bad behaviors (Smith & Myron-Wilson, 1998). The overprotection of mothers also leads to fragile psychological resilience of children, resulting in greater harm when they are exposed to violence (Plexousakis et al., 2019). Exposure to daily violence is more likely to lead to children’s contact and interaction with peers with bad behavior, and to an increased risk of deviant peer affiliation (Brady, 2017).
Whether the mother’s parenting style is rejection or overprotection, this will lead to children’s exposure to violence being more likely, but the effect values of the two are different, which may be because the potential mechanism of mother’s rejection and mother’s overprotection affecting deviant peer affiliation through violence exposure is different. This result also suggests that parents, teachers, mental health practitioners, and social workers should pay attention to the role of violence exposure when developing interventions to treat adolescents who have affiliated with deviant peers.
We found that the teacher–student relationship played a significant mediating role between mother rejection and adolescents’ deviant peer affiliation, which is consistent with previous research results (Bowlby, 1988; Jia et al., 2017). According to attachment theory (Bowlby, 1988), mother rejection often leads to children forming an unsafe attachment, which will affect the subsequent establishment of intimate relationships with important others. For teenagers who are studying, teachers are important others in this period. Establishing a good relationship with their teachers helps to reduce adolescents’ externalization problems (D. Li et al., 2013). Having a good relationship with their teacher is also an important protective factor for the adolescent against forming deviant peer affiliation (Jia et al., 2017). We found that the mediating effect of the teacher–student relationship between mother overprotection and adolescent deviant peer affiliation was not significant. The path between the teacher–student relationship and deviant peer affiliation was significant, and the path between mother overprotection and the teacher–student relationship was not significant. This may be because after controlling for mother rejection, the impact of mother overprotection on the relationship between teachers and students is mainly reflected in the decline of children’s psychological tolerance caused by the parent doting on them. This has no serious impact on the teacher–student relationship or on deviant peer affiliation. Therefore, the mediating effect of the teacher–student relationship between mother overprotection and deviant peer affiliation is not significant. This result supports the view that the teacher–student relationship is an extension of the mother–child relationship. A mother’s rejection will lead to a bad mother–child relationship, which may extend to the teacher–student relationship. However, the overprotection of a mother is less likely to lead to a bad mother–child relationship (Gong et al., 2022). At the same time, we found that a mother’s rejection will affect the adolescent’s deviant peer affiliation through the intermediary role of the teacher–student relationship. This new finding supports the view that different negative parenting styles have different potential mechanisms in regard to deviant peer affiliation. Our results show that this aspect of the topic should be explored in more depth in future research.
We found that mother rejection affects adolescents’ deviant peer affiliation through the mediating role of the teacher–student relationship, whereas mother overprotection affects adolescents’ deviant peer affiliation only through the mediating role of violence exposure. This suggests that parents, teachers, mental health practitioners, and social workers should formulate different intervention programs for different negative parenting styles to more accurately target the programs to address adolescents' deviant peer affiliation.
This study has some limitations. Cultural differences may prevent generalization of our results to different countries and ethnic groups. Further, this was a cross-sectional study. Future researchers should consider conducting longitudinal research to assess causality. The participants in this study were recruited from four senior high schools in eastern China. Future researchers could consider recruiting adolescents from different regions of China to improve the universality of the research results. Finally, the mediating effects of violence exposure and the teacher–student relationship were small, and other mediating variables may play a role in the relationship of mother rejection/overprotection and adolescents’ deviant peer affiliation. Future studies could include other mediating variables to explain this relationship. Despite these limitations, the findings of this study reveal for the first time the different ways in which mother rejection and mother overprotection affect adolescent deviant peer affiliation, which provides an important theoretical basis for future interventions.
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