Understanding differences in web usage: The role of need for cognition and the Five Factor Model of personality
Main Article Content
In relation to the Five-Factor Model of Personality and need for cognition, the authors investigated the relationship between personality and Internet usage. Of the five factors, openness to experience and neuroticism showed the greatest association to Internet usage. Openness to experience was positively related to using the Internet for entertainment and product information, while neuroticism was negatively related to Internet usage. Need for cognition was significantly and positively correlated with all Internet activities involving cognitive thought.
Interest in Internet usage is reflected in the many organizations that strive to accurately describe who is using the web and for what purposes. Such organizations include the GVU’s Web User Survey, Cyberdialogue, and NUA Internet Surveys. However, such descriptions of web usage do not provide a picture of the users themselves. In other words, what might cause differences in Internet usage among various users? In this study we sought to bridge this gap by investigating the relationship between personality traits and web usage, and reporting the results of a survey in which the Big Five personality traits, need for cognition, and web usage were assessed. Prior to the description of the results, the Five-Factor Model of Personality and the need for cognition are outlined briefly, and the methods used in conducting the study are explained.
The Five-Factor Model of Personality
The Five-Factor Model of Personality, sometimes called the Big Five, is used to describe the most important domains of personality. The factors are extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience (Goldberg, 1990, 1992). Extraversion, or surgency, is commonly thought of as a form of sociability (Judge, Martocchio, & Thoresen, 1997). Adjectives associated with extraversion include talkative, active, assertive, excitement-seeking, and easily bored or distracted (Costa & McCrae, 1992; Judge et al., 1997). Agreeableness is described by the adjectives courteous, flexible, good-natured, cooperative, and tolerant (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Costa & McCrae, 1992). Conscientiousness, or dependability, is described as personal competence, self-discipline, and deliberation. Individuals who are high in conscientiousness are punctual, reliable, determined, and likely to have a strong need for achievement. Digman and Takemoto-Chock (1981) likened conscientiousness to achievement orientation. Costa and McCrae (1992) emphasized an individual’s self-control as the key component of conscientiousness, while Murphy and Lee (1994) linked conscientiousness to honesty and integrity. Individuals who exhibit neuroticism are generally described as fearful, anxious, pessimistic, worried, and insecure (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Judge et al., 1997). Openness to experience is sometimes referred to as intellect (Goldberg, 1990). Adjectives used to describe openness to experience include imaginative, curious, original, broad-minded, and intelligent (Barrick & Mount, 1991).
Need for Cognition
Cacioppo and Petty (1982) proposed that need for cognition was a stable individual difference in people’s tendency to engage in, and enjoy, effortful cognitive activity. The individual variations in need for cognition were proposed as falling along a bipolar continuum from low to high. Individuals high in need for cognition are thought to naturally seek, acquire, think about, and reflect on information in their environment. These people are thought of as having positive attitudes towards tasks and stimuli that require reasoning, problem-solving, and effortful thinking (Cacioppo, Petty, Feinstein, & Jarvis, 1996). They perceive themselves as being in control of their own fate, effective workers, and as having more knowledge about a wide variety of social issues.
In contrast, individuals low in need for cognition prefer to rely upon others, particularly celebrities, and similar simple cues. Low need for cognition refers to the relative absence of a person’s chronic tendency to engage in, and enjoy, effortful cognitive activities. For example, how attractive the message source is (Petty, Cacioppo, & Goldman, 1981) or the number of arguments contained in the message (Petty & Cacioppo, 1984) is likely to be persuasive to an individual with a low need for cognition.
Hypotheses
Given the description of extraversion as excitement-seeking and active, the authors expect that individuals who are high in extraversion will tend to use the Internet for entertainment more than will those who are not disposed to extraversion. No relationship among other web uses based on the description of extraversion is anticipated.
Hypothesis 1: Extraversion will be positively related to using the Internet for entertainment purposes.
Agreeableness is thought of as flexibility, tolerance, and good-naturedness. While it is consistently described as one of the five factors of personality, it has not been found to predict behaviors related to work performance. Further, based on the description, there is no reason to anticipate a relationship between agreeableness and Internet usage.
Conscientiousness is frequently described as dependability and reliability. It is, more than any other factor in the model, considered a strong predictor of performance (Barrick & Mount, 1991). Judge et al. (1997) found that conscientiousness was negatively related to absenteeism. Consequently, one tends to think of a conscientious person as one who might use the Internet in order to make better decisions, to keep up with current events, and to learn. The authors expect that conscientiousness will be negatively related to using the web for entertainment purposes.
Hypothesis 2: Conscientiousness will be positively related to Internet usage for gathering product information, for current events and news, and for educational purposes.
Hypothesis 3: Conscientiousness will be negatively related to using the Internet for entertainment.
Neuroticism is the lack of emotional stability. Neurotic individuals are described as insecure and worried. Given the concern for privacy and security when using the Internet, the authors expect neurotic people to minimize web usage for all purposes.
Hypothesis 4: Neuroticism will be negatively related to Internet usage for all purposes.
Openness to experience, or intellect, generally refers to one’s intelligence and broad-mindedness. Generally speaking, the authors would anticipate those individuals using the Internet at all to score higher on openness to experience than those who choose not to use the Internet. However, with regard to specific forms of web usage, they expect that those who are open to experience will be more inclined to use the Internet for entertainment (because openness is described as imaginative), for current events and news (due to their curious nature), and for educational purposes (because of the intelligence descriptor).
Hypothesis 5: Openness to experience will be positively related to web usage for entertainment, current events and news, and educational purposes.
Need for cognition is described as one’s enjoyment of, and desire for, cognitive activity. In examining the ability of the need for cognition to explain web usage, the authors expect to see a positive relationship between need for cognition and use of the web for learning and educational purposes, gathering product information, reading about current events and news. They anticipate that individuals who are high in need for cognition do not use the web for entertainment purposes. Rather, this type of behavior would be more consistent with an individual who is low in need for cognition. In other words, if one considers the cognitive nature of possible web usage activities, individuals high in need for cognition are expected to participate more in those activities with a cognitive component rather than in those with a hedonic component.
Hypothesis 6: Need for cognition will be positively related to those Internet uses that are characterized by a cognitive component.
Hypothesis 7: Need for cognition will be negatively related to hedonic Internet activities.
Method
Participants and Procedure
Surveys were administered to 400 students at three colleges in the South-eastern United States. The questionnaires contained measures for the Big Five personality traits, need for cognition, demographic questions, and web usage. Of the 400 students, 51% were female, and the majority were between the ages of 19 and 26 (88%), single (94%), and Caucasian (84%). While this sample was largely homogeneous with regard to ethnicity, age, and marital status, it is quite representative of the average Internet user.
Measures
The Need For Cognition Scale was developed in a series of studies by Cacioppo and Petty (1982) and was later shortened to include only 18 items (Cacioppo, Petty, & Kao, 1984). Respondents indicate their level of agreement on a 9-point Likert scale ranging from very strong disagreement to very strong agreement. Higher mean scores indicate a higher need for cognition. The Cronbach’s alpha for the scale in this study was .85.
The personality traits of the Big Five model were assessed using Goldberg’s (1992) Bipolar Inventory. Each scale contains 7 pairs of adjectives. Using a scale of 1 to 9, respondents indicate the degree to which each adjective describes them. Higher mean scores on each dimension reflect more of the quality identified by the scale label with the exception of neuroticism, which is reversed. Coefficient alphas for the personality scales were as follows: Extraversion, = .87; Agreeableness = .87; Conscientiousness = .86; Neuroticism = .85; Openness to experience = .85.
Four possible uses were identified to assess Internet usage: 1) Entertainment and games, 2) Gathering product or brand information, 3) Current events and news, and 4) Learning, Reference, and Education. Respondents were asked to check all that applied to them. Thus, all variables measuring web usage were dichotomous.
Results
Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics and intercorrelations of the variables of interest. The highest usage was reported in the entertainment category with 59% using the Internet for this purpose. Twenty-five per cent used the Web to gather product information and 38% used it for current events and news. Forty-three per cent used the Internet for learning and educational purposes.
Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations Among Study Variables
Note: N = 400
* Means for trait measures, but percentage of individuals indicating Internet use for that purpose for each Internet usage variable.
** p < .05 *** p < .001
The Big Five traits were correlated with one another. Correlations among the Big Five variables are noted in the literature (Judge, Thoresen, & Martocchio, 1997; Costa & McCrae, 1992) and are to be expected given the related nature of the factors. Need for cognition also correlated with extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. This is also noted in the literature. For instance, Sadowski and Cogburn (1997) found that need for cognition correlated with conscientiousness and openness to experience.
None of extraversion, agreeableness, or conscientiousness was significantly correlated with any form of web usage. Neuroticism was correlated negatively with using the web for product information and for learning and education. Openness to experience was positively correlated with entertainment web usage, and product information usage – although even the significant correlations showed a weak overall effect. Need for cognition correlated positively with using the Internet for product information, current events and news, and learning and education. It correlated negatively with entertainment usage, but this relationship was not significant.
Web usage activities also correlated with each other. Entertainment was correlated only with using the Internet for product information. However, the remaining usage categories were all positively and significantly correlated with one another.
In addition to the correlations analysis, respondents were classified into categories and identified as either high or low for each personality trait (including need for cognition). After a median split, several cross-tabulations were conducted to further investigate the effect of personality traits on Internet usage.
The cross-tabulations showed no significant relationship between extraversion and web usage types. This was true for agreeableness. Individuals scoring high in conscientiousness are less likely to use the Internet for entertainment. Of those who do not seek entertainment on the web, 58% were high in conscientiousness (chi-square, 6.89, df = 1, p < .01). Other usage types did not differ according to level of conscientiousness.
Individuals who exhibit the trait openness to experience made up 62% of those using the web for entertainment (chi-square, 10.751, df = 1, p < .001), and 64% of those using the web for product information (chi-square, 3.77, df = 1, p < .05). An individual’s level of openness to experience did not appear to affect use of the Internet for current events and news or for learning and education.
Finally, 54% of those individuals using the web for learning and education indicated also a high presence of neuroticism. Of those indicating less neuroticism, 62% did not use the Internet for learning and education (chi-square, 5.50, df = 1, p < .01). No relationship existed for the other Internet usage categories.
Need for cognition did not appear to have a relationship to using the Internet either for entertainment or for learning and education. Of those using the Internet for gathering product information, there was a significantly higher presence of individuals with high need for cognition (68%; chi-square, 16.12, df = 1, p < .001). Of those individuals indicating Internet usage for current events and news, significantly more people were also high in need for cognition (60%; chi-square, 7.79, df = 1, p < .005).
Discussion
Surprisingly, extraversion was not related to web usage for entertainment. Thus, Hypothesis 1 was not supported. While extraverts are thought of as impulsive and activity-seeking, perhaps this does not affect their choice of activity on the web. It is possible that, instead, extraversion affects the duration of a particular usage rather than the type of usage itself. In other words, extraverts may use the internet for the same purposes as introverts, but extraverts may move from site to site more frequently and quickly than introverts. In addition, no web-based social activities were measured. Because extraverts are thought of as being warm, friendly, and social, it is possible that they use the Internet for social activities like participating in chat rooms.
As expected, no significant relationship was found between agreeableness and web usage of any form. Hypotheses 2 and 3 were not supported; conscientiousness was not significantly related to any web usage activity. Hypothesis 4 was supported. Neuroticism was negatively related to web usage for product information and educational purposes. Those individuals who feel insecure and worried may seek to gather more information than do those who are confident in their decision-making. Hypothesis 5 related to the relationship between openness to experience and web usage for entertainment, current events and news, and educational purposes. This hypothesis was partially supported. Openness to experience was not significantly related either to current events and news or to learning and education. However, it was positively and significantly related to entertainment usage.
Need for cognition represents the greatest success with regard to understanding web usage. Need for cognition was significantly and positively related to Web usage for product information, current events and news, learning, and education. Each activity entails a cognitive component which is likely to be attractive to those individuals high in need for cognition. Conversely, those with a low need for cognition are less likely to use the Internet for such purposes. Low need for cognition was related to web usage for entertainment purposes, but this relationship was not significant. Still, need for cognition appears to be a good predictor of web usage.
Based on these results, it appears that need for cognition, neuroticism, and openness to experience are the most relevant personality traits for understanding Internet usage. While such information is valuable as companies strive to design websites that appeal to customers, the results must be viewed cautiously given the low effect sizes. The effectiveness of a website is likely to be moderated by the personality traits of its target market. The results suggest also that dispositional factors, as opposed to situational factors, are important in understanding Web-based behaviors. Future researchers should seek to confirm the relationship between personality and web usage as well as to investigate the role of extraversion more thoroughly.
References
Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K (1991). The Big Five personality dimensions and job performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 44, 1-26.
Cacioppo, J., & Petty, R. (1982). The need for cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 116-131.
Cacioppo, J., Petty, R., & Kao, C. F. (1984). The efficient assessment of need for cognition. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48, 306-307.
Cacioppo, J., Petty, R., Feinstein, J., & Jarvis, W. B. G. (1996). Dispositional differences in cognitive motivation: The life and times of individuals varying in need for cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 119(2), 197-253.
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Professional Manual for the NEO PI-R and NEO-FFI. Odessa, Florida: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Digman, J. M., & Takemoto-Chock, N. K (1981). Factors in the natural language of personality: Re-analysis, comparison, and interpretation of six major studies. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 16, 149-170.
Goldberg, L. R. (1990). An alternative ‘description of personality’: The big five factor structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(6), 1216-1229.
Goldberg, L. R. (1992). The development of markers of the big five factor structure. Psychological Assessment, 4, 26-42.
Judge, T., Martocchio, J., & Thoresen, C. (1997). Five-factor model of personality and employee absence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(5), 745-755.
Murphy, K. R., & Lee, S. L. (1994). Personality variables related to integrity test scores: The role of conscientiousness. Journal of Business and Psychology, 9, 413-424.
Petty, R., & Cacioppo, J. (1984). The effects of involvement on response to argument quantity and quality: Central and peripheral routes to persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 69-81.
Petty, R., Cacioppo, J., & Goldman, R. (1981). Personal involvement as a determinant of argument-based persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 847-855.
Sadowki, C., & Cogburn, H. (1997). Need for cognition in the big five factor structure. The Journal of Psychology, 131(3), 307-312.
Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K (1991). The Big Five personality dimensions and job performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 44, 1-26.
Cacioppo, J., & Petty, R. (1982). The need for cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 116-131.
Cacioppo, J., Petty, R., & Kao, C. F. (1984). The efficient assessment of need for cognition. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48, 306-307.
Cacioppo, J., Petty, R., Feinstein, J., & Jarvis, W. B. G. (1996). Dispositional differences in cognitive motivation: The life and times of individuals varying in need for cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 119(2), 197-253.
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Professional Manual for the NEO PI-R and NEO-FFI. Odessa, Florida: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Digman, J. M., & Takemoto-Chock, N. K (1981). Factors in the natural language of personality: Re-analysis, comparison, and interpretation of six major studies. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 16, 149-170.
Goldberg, L. R. (1990). An alternative ‘description of personality’: The big five factor structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(6), 1216-1229.
Goldberg, L. R. (1992). The development of markers of the big five factor structure. Psychological Assessment, 4, 26-42.
Judge, T., Martocchio, J., & Thoresen, C. (1997). Five-factor model of personality and employee absence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(5), 745-755.
Murphy, K. R., & Lee, S. L. (1994). Personality variables related to integrity test scores: The role of conscientiousness. Journal of Business and Psychology, 9, 413-424.
Petty, R., & Cacioppo, J. (1984). The effects of involvement on response to argument quantity and quality: Central and peripheral routes to persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 69-81.
Petty, R., Cacioppo, J., & Goldman, R. (1981). Personal involvement as a determinant of argument-based persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 847-855.
Sadowki, C., & Cogburn, H. (1997). Need for cognition in the big five factor structure. The Journal of Psychology, 131(3), 307-312.
Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations Among Study Variables
Note: N = 400
* Means for trait measures, but percentage of individuals indicating Internet use for that purpose for each Internet usage variable.
** p < .05 *** p < .001
The support of the Center for Survey Research and Methodology (ZUMA)
Mannheim
Germany
during the development and completion of this research and manuscript is gratefully acknowledged.
Acknowledgement is due to reviewers including
Jacki Fitzpatrick
PhD
Department of Human Development &
Family Studies
Texas Tech University
USA.