Job burnout is a multidimensional syndrome resulting from a chronic imbalance between job demands and resources (Maslach & Jackson, 1981). Within higher education institutions, frontline professionals—including academic advisors, administrative staff, and mental health counselors—constitute a high-risk group for job burnout. Among these, university counselors face particularly high demands due to their multifaceted responsibilities in ideological guidance, crisis management, and administrative duties, resulting in significantly higher job burnout levels compared to full-time teaching faculty (Liang & Yin, 2025). Conservation of resources (COR) theory provides a widely recognized framework to explain the underlying mechanism of job burnout. According to COR theory, individuals strive to acquire, maintain, and protect valued resources (Hobfoll, 1989, 2001). Common resource-loss stressors include intensive crisis intervention, role overload, emergent task handling, and emotional labor, while key resources encompass organizational support, career-advancement opportunities, social recognition, and psychological capital. When resource loss consistently outweighs resource gain, a loss spiral ensues, ultimately leading to job burnout (Halbesleben et al., 2014; Hobfoll et al., 2018).

 

Emotional labor represents a distinct form of labor differing from physical and cognitive labor, defined in the workplace context as the process through which individuals regulate their emotional expression to meet organizational and professional requirements (Grandey, 2000). Diefendorff et al. (2005) identified three key emotional labor strategies: surface acting, deep acting, and expression of naturally felt emotions. According to COR theory, these strategies differentially affect psychological resource dynamics. Surface acting involves modifying outward emotional displays without genuine internal adjustment (Hülsheger & Schewe, 2011). This dissonance between felt and expressed emotions accelerates resource depletion and may initiate a loss spiral (Hobfoll et al., 2018). Deep acting, by contrast, requires aligning internal feelings with external expressions. Although it creates a temporary resource demand, deep acting promotes long-term resource gain through enhanced authenticity and self-consistency (Brotheridge & Lee, 2002). Expression of naturally felt emotions occurs when genuine emotions align naturally with display rules. This strategy not only conserves resources but also facilitates resource gain through positive affective experiences (Zapf, 2002).

 

According to COR theory, job burnout is negatively correlated with strategies that facilitate resource gain and positively correlated with those resulting in resource depletion. Previous research has examined the relationship between emotional labor strategies and job burnout. For example, Hülsheger and Schewe (2011) found that surface acting was positively associated with job burnout, whereas deep acting was negatively associated with job burnout. Similarly, meta-analytic evidence has shown a negative association between expression of naturally felt emotions and job burnout (Kammeyer-Mueller et al., 2013; see also Grandey & Melloy, 2017). University counselors must actively regulate their emotional displays, present with a professional attitude and behavior, and employ adaptive emotional strategies to comply with institutional expectations (Wen et al., 2022); thus, emotional labor constitutes an integral component of their professional role. Therefore, we put forward the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1: Emotional labor strategies will be significantly correlated with job burnout among university counselors.

Hypothesis 1a: Surface acting will be positively related to job burnout.

Hypothesis 1b: Deep acting will be negatively related to job burnout.

Hypothesis 1c: Expression of naturally felt emotions will be negatively related to job burnout.

 

Psychological capital (PsyCap) is defined as a measurable, developable positive psychological state encompassing self-efficacy, hope, optimism, and resilience, which is negatively correlated with job burnout by enhancing stress coping and emotional regulation (Avey et al., 2011; Luthans et al., 2007). For surface acting, PsyCap entails suppressing genuine emotions to display inauthentic ones, creating persistent emotional dissonance (Diefendorff & Gosserand, 2003). Per COR theory, this dissonance and continuous self-control deplete psychological resources (Hobfoll, 2001), undermining the four core components of PsyCap (Grandey & Melloy, 2017) and reducing individuals’ stress resistance and positive mindset, thereby increasing job burnout. For deep acting, individuals align inner feelings with display rules via cognitive reappraisal, reducing dissonance and fostering authentic emotional experiences (Fredrickson, 2001). Supported by Fredrickson’s (2013) broaden-and-build theory, positive feedback from this process broadens cognitive–behavioral repertoires and accumulates resources to enhance PsyCap (Luthans et al., 2007), which, in turn, mitigates job burnout. For expression of naturally felt emotions, the innate alignment with display rules avoids resource depletion and generates positive affective experiences (Zapf, 2002). These experiences strengthen PsyCap, boosting self-efficacy through smooth interactions, reinforcing hope via positive exchanges, nurturing optimism through favorable feedback, and enhancing resilience through effective emotional regulation (Youssef-Morgan & Luthans, 2015), which ultimately decreases job burnout. Therefore, we proposed the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 2: Psychological capital will mediate the relationship between emotional labor strategies and job burnout among university counselors.

Hypothesis 2a: Surface acting will predict higher job burnout via the depletion of psychological capital.

Hypothesis 2b: Deep acting will predict lower job burnout via the enhancement of psychological capital.

Hypothesis 2c: Expression of naturally felt emotions will predict lower job burnout via the enhancement of psychological capital.

 

Professional identity reflects an individual’s identification with and emotional commitment to their occupational role, encompassing professional value internalization and self-concept integration, with core dimensions including professional values, role identity, sense of belonging, and behavioral commitment (Ashforth & Mael, 1989; Wei et al., 2013). For university counselors, professional identity manifests as a value-based conviction in the context of ideological and student development work, as well as sustained affective commitment amid multirole pressures, and it constitutes a key psychological resource per COR theory (Ma, 2022). Empirical evidence has shown that professional identity is correlated with job burnout, work engagement, and turnover intention among university counselors, with stronger professional identity enhancing resilience and reducing emotional exhaustion and depersonalization (Fiorilli et al., 2019; Webb et al., 2009). However, some studies have suggested that the direct effect of professional identity on job burnout may be overstated and dependent on context, highlighting the need to explore its complex interplay with other psychological resources like PsyCap (Lian & Wang, 2022), especially in the highly demanding setting of university counseling. University counselors with varying professional identity levels differ significantly in their levels of PsyCap and psychological resilience (Vilariño del Castillo & López-Zafra, 2022). The protective effect of PsyCap against work stress is enhanced by higher professional identity (Bakker & van Wingerden, 2021) because a strong professional identity reinforces university counselors’ recognition of their work value, making them more willing to leverage PsyCap (self-efficacy, hope, optimism, resilience) to cope with stressors, thereby strengthening the mitigating effect on job burnout. Thus, we put forward the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 3: Professional identity will moderate the relationship between psychological capital and job burnout among university counselors, such that the negative effect of psychological capital on job burnout will become stronger when professional identity is high, but will be attenuated when professional identity is low.

 

Our proposed moderated mediation model is shown in Figure 1.

We used convenience sampling to recruit 744 university counselors from six public universities in Southwest China. Participants completed a structured questionnaire containing scales measuring emotional labor strategies, job burnout, PsyCap, professional identity, and demographic information. Each participant provided written informed consent and received a compensation valued at approximately CNY 35 (USD 5). We received valid responses to 744 questionnaires, yielding a response rate of 99.7%. The sample included 413 women and 331 men, ranging in age between 24 and 55 years (M = 34.21, SD = 8.73). We conducted this research in compliance with the ethical guidelines of the College of Applied Technology, Yunnan Minzu University, and obtained approval from its Ethics Committee.

We controlled for the demographic and occupational variables of gender, age, marital status, number of children, work experience, weekly hours in student affairs, administrative rank, professional title, university type, and employment nature.

 

We measured emotional labor strategies using a culturally adapted version of Diefendorff et al.’s (2005) 14-item Emotional Labor Strategies Scale, which includes three subscales: surface acting (seven items, e.g., “I fake a good mood when interacting with students”), deep acting (four items, e.g., “I try to actually experience the emotions that I must show to students”), and expression of naturally felt emotions (three items, e.g., “The emotions I express to students are genuine”). Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Subscale scores are averaged, with higher scores indicating greater use of each strategy. The scale showed good internal consistency reliability (α = .83).

 

We assessed job burnout with an adapted version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory–Educators Survey (Maslach & Jackson, 1996). The 22-item scale comprises three dimensions: emotional exhaustion (nine items, e.g., “I feel frustrated by my work”), depersonalization (five items, e.g., “I really don’t care about what happens to some of my students”), and reduced personal accomplishment (eight items, e.g., “I feel full of energy”; reverse scored). Responses are recorded on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 0 = never to 6 = daily. Subscale scores are computed by summing items for emotional exhaustion (range: 0–54) and depersonalization (0–30), and reverse-scoring items for reduced personal accomplishment (0–48). According to established cutoffs, scores ≥ 27 for emotional exhaustion, ≥ 10 for depersonalization, and ≤ 18 for reduced personal accomplishment indicate high burnout (Li & Shi, 2003). The scale demonstrated high internal consistency reliability (α = .89).

 

We measured psychological capital using a culturally adapted Chinese version (Li, 2008) of the Psychological Capital Questionnaire (Luthans et al., 2007), which contains 24 items divided evenly across four dimensions: self-efficacy (e.g., “I feel confident analyzing a long-term problem to find a solution”), optimism (e.g., “I can think of many ways to reach my current work goals”), resilience (e.g., “I feel I can handle many things at a time at this job”), and hope (e.g., “I always look on the bright side of things regarding my job”). Items are rated on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree. A total score is computed by summing all items after reverse coding where appropriate, with higher scores reflecting greater PsyCap. The scale showed excellent internal consistency reliability (α = .90).

 

We assessed professional identity using a modified version of the Professional Identity Scale developed by Wei et al. (2013), consisting of 18 items divided across four dimensions: professional values (four items, e.g., “I believe the counseling profession is crucial for promoting individual human development”), role values (six items, e.g., “I am well-suited for counseling work”), professional belongingness (three items, e.g., “I am concerned about how others view the counseling profession”), and professional behavioral tendencies (five items, e.g., “I am able to consistently finish work assignments on time”). Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = completely inconsistent to 5 = completely consistent. A total score is obtained by summing all items, with higher scores indicating stronger professional identity. The scale exhibited high internal consistency reliability (α = .90).

We analyzed the data using SPSS 27.0 and the PROCESS macro 4.3. We first checked for common method bias, then tested the hypotheses using a two-step approach. First, PROCESS Model 4 was employed to examine the direct effects of emotional labor strategies on job burnout (Hypothesis 1) and their indirect effects through PsyCap (Hypothesis 2). Next, we used PROCESS Model 14 to test the moderation hypothesis (Hypothesis 3) through the interaction term of PsyCap × professional identity. The nature of this interaction was interpreted through a simple slope analysis, comparing the effect of PsyCap on job burnout at high (M + 1 SD) and low (M −1 SD) levels of professional identity. The significance of all indirect effects was evaluated using a bootstrapping analysis with 5,000 resamples.

We conducted Harman’s single-factor test to evaluate potential common method variance. The unrotated factor analysis extracted five factors with eigenvalues greater than 1, with the first factor accounting for 22.02% of the total variance, which is below the 40% threshold (Podsakoff et al., 2003), indicating no significant common method bias concerns.

Means, standard deviations, and correlations among the major continuous variables are presented in Table 1. To examine the associations between demographic variables and job burnout, we employed a Pearson correlation analysis for age (continuous), independent samples t tests for marital status (dichotomous), and a one-way analysis of variance for professional title and highest education level (categorical). The results indicated that marital status, professional title, and highest education level were not significantly associated with job burnout. However, age was significantly and negatively correlated with job burnout. Therefore, we included only age as a control variable in the subsequent moderated mediation analyses.

All variables were standardized prior to analysis. Using Model 4 of the PROCESS macro (Hayes, 2022) with 5,000 bootstrapped resamples and 95% confidence intervals (CIs), we examined the mediating role of PsyCap between emotional labor strategies and job burnout, while controlling for age.

 

As shown in Table 2, surface acting significantly and positively predicted job burnout, but was not significantly associated with PsyCap. Furthermore, the bootstrapping analysis results shown in Table 3 indicated that the indirect effect of surface acting on job burnout through PsyCap was not significant. Therefore, the mediating role of PsyCap between surface acting and job burnout was not supported.

Although deep acting did not directly predict job burnout, it significantly and positively predicted PsyCap, which, in turn, significantly and negatively predicted job burnout. A bootstrapping analysis confirmed a significant negative indirect effect. The total effect of deep acting on job burnout was not significant, indicating that its positive direct effect and negative indirect effect operated in opposite directions, consistent with an inconsistent mediation (suppression) pattern. Detailed results are presented in Tables 4 and 5.

Expression of naturally felt emotions significantly and negatively predicted job burnout, and significantly and positively predicted PsyCap. When expression of naturally felt emotions and PsyCap were included in the regression equation, both variables significantly predicted job burnout. The indirect effect was also significant, indicating partial mediation by PsyCap, accounting for 33.17% of the total effect. Detailed results are provided in Tables 6 and 7.

This study used Model 14 of the PROCESS macro 4.3 to examine the proposed moderated mediation model. Deep acting and expression of naturally felt emotions were independent variables, PsyCap served as the mediator, professional identity was the moderator, and job burnout was the dependent variable. Age was included as a control variable. All variables were standardized before analysis, and 5,000 bootstrapped resamples were drawn for estimation.

 

The results (see Table 8) showed that the interaction term between PsyCap and professional identity significantly predicted job burnout, indicating that professional identity moderated the relationship between PsyCap and job burnout. To further clarify the nature of the moderation effect, we performed a simple slope analysis by grouping professional identity into high and low levels (M ± 1 SD). The analysis revealed that when professional identity was low, PsyCap significantly and negatively predicted job burnout both when deep acting was the independent variable and when expression of naturally felt emotions was the independent variable. Conversely, when professional identity was high, the effect of PsyCap on job burnout was not significant. The moderating effects are illustrated in Figures 2 and 3.

Guided by COR theory, this study developed a moderated mediation model to elucidate the mechanisms through which emotional labor strategies influence job burnout among university counselors, with a specific focus on the roles of PsyCap and professional identity. Overall, the results partially supported the hypothesized model. The direct and mediating effects (Hypotheses 1 and 2) were largely confirmed, while the moderating effect of professional identity (Hypothesis 3) manifested in a nuanced pattern, providing a key point for theoretical reflection.

Consistent with Hypothesis 1a and the resource depletion premise of COR theory (Hobfoll et al., 2018), surface acting was found to be a significant positive predictor of job burnout. The dissonance between felt and expressed emotions inherent in surface acting creates a persistent resource drain, directly contributing to exhaustion and depersonalization (Hülsheger & Schewe, 2011). Contrary to Hypothesis 2a, this effect did not operate through PsyCap depletion, suggesting that the resource loss from surface acting may be more immediate and acute, perhaps having a greater impact on emotional and cognitive regulatory resources rather than the broader, trait-like construct of PsyCap (Beal et al., 2006).

 

For deep acting, the results supported Hypothesis 2b but not Hypothesis 1b, revealing a nuanced mechanism: While deep acting did not directly reduce job burnout, it exerted a significant negative indirect effect by enhancing PsyCap (Luthans et al., 2007). However, this protective pathway was offset by a concurrent positive direct effect, resulting in a nonsignificant total effect—a pattern consistent with inconsistent mediation or suppression. This aligns with the resource investment principle of COR theory (Hobfoll, 2001) and the dual nature of emotional regulation (Grandey & Melloy, 2017): The initial cognitive effort of deep acting may be inherently depleting (Hülsheger & Schewe, 2011), yet successful internal adjustment can build PsyCap as a long-term buffer against burnout.

 

The expression of naturally felt emotions demonstrated the most robust beneficial pattern, supporting Hypotheses 1c and 2c. Expression of naturally felt emotions directly reduced job burnout and did so even more strongly through boosting PsyCap. This dual pathway exemplifies the gain spirals described in COR theory: When job demands (emotional display rules) align with personal resources (genuine emotions), no initial resource investment is needed to bridge a gap, thereby conserving resources and generating positive affective experiences, which are fundamental for building PsyCap (Avey et al., 2011). Our finding that expression of naturally felt emotions had the strongest correlation with PsyCap reinforces its role as a key resource-generating strategy in emotionally demanding professions.

We believe our most theoretically significant finding pertains to Hypothesis 3. Contrary to our hypothesis that a stronger sense of professional identity would strengthen PsyCap’s negative effect on job burnout, the simple slope analysis revealed a more complex picture: PsyCap only significantly predicted lower job burnout among university counselors with low professional identity, whereas its effect became nonsignificant among those with high professional identity. This pattern, while opposite to our prediction, is not merely a null finding but points to a more sophisticated interplay between different types of psychological resources.

 

We propose that this result is best understood through the lens of resource substitution within the COR framework, which posits that individuals use varying resources to cope with stress (Hobfoll, 2011). When one key resource is abundant, the marginal utility or necessity of another resource may diminish. In this context, a strong professional identity—characterized by internalized values, role commitment, and a sense of belonging (Ashforth & Mael, 1989; Wei et al., 2013)—may itself constitute a potent, primary resource that directly buffers against the meaninglessness and cynicism central to burnout. For university counselors with a strong sense of professional identity, the work itself is inherently meaningful and aligned with their self-concept. This profound sense of purpose and identity likely provides a direct and powerful protective effect against job burnout, potentially rendering the additional, incremental protective effect of the more general positive psychological states captured by PsyCap as less critical or statistically detectable (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017). In essence, professional identity may functionally substitute for PsyCap in its burnout-buffering role for individuals with a strong sense of professional identity.

 

This interpretation refines our understanding of the interplay between specific, identity-based resources and general, personal resources. It suggests that the protective pathways against burnout are not merely additive. While both professional identity and PsyCap are valuable resources, their efficacy may depend on the individual’s overall resource portfolio. For those lacking a strong professional anchor (low professional identity), cultivating general psychological resources (PsyCap) becomes paramount. Conversely, for those with a firmly established professional self (high professional identity), interventions might yield greater returns by further solidifying that identity or addressing specific role-related stressors, rather than by focusing on general positivity.

 

Consequently, the proposed moderated mediation effect—where professional identity would amplify the indirect benefits of deep acting and expression of naturally felt emotions via PsyCap—was not supported. Rather, the indirect effects were significant only in the low-professional-identity group. This further reinforces the substitution hypothesis: For individuals with a strong sense of professional identity, the benefits of adaptive emotional labor may be absorbed more directly through enhanced role fulfillment and intrinsic satisfaction linked to their strong identity, rather than being channeled primarily through the amplification of PsyCap.

These findings offer nuanced guidance for supporting university counselors through a multifaceted approach. Interventions should be tailored, with programs focused on enhancing PsyCap (e.g., resilience training, efficacy-building workshops) being crucial for those with lower professional identity or in the early career stages, as this is their primary buffering resource. Institutions must concurrently fortify employees’ professional identity through clear role valorization, mentorship, peer communities, and mission-connected professional development to build a robust intrinsic resource. Further, workplace training should actively promote adaptive emotional strategies by discouraging surface acting while educating counselors on the long-term benefits of deep acting and expression of naturally felt emotions, framing them as skills that either build PsyCap or align with professional identity, depending on the individual’s existing resource profile.

This study is limited by its cross-sectional design, which precludes making causal claims. Future research could employ longitudinal designs to trace the coevolution of professional identity and PsyCap over time. Future studies could also directly test the resource substitution hypothesis by measuring multiple resource types and examining their interactive and nonlinear effects on well-being. Qualitative inquiries into how university counselors with a strong sense of professional identity interpret and cope with stressors could provide richer insights into the potential mechanisms bypassing PsyCap. Finally, investigating contextual factors (e.g., organizational support, workload) that might influence the professional identity–PsyCap interplay is warranted.

In conclusion, this study has elucidated the distinct resource dynamics of different emotional labor strategies among university counselors, with expression of naturally felt emotions operating as a resource-generating strategy and deep acting exhibiting a dual-pathway effect that simultaneously generates resources and imposes regulatory costs. The key contribution of this research lies in uncovering the nuanced, conditional role of professional identity. The finding that PsyCap’s protective effect is most vital for those with low professional identity advances COR theory by highlighting resource substitution as a key boundary condition in the relationship between different types of psychological resources and burnout. This calls for a more personalized, resource-profile-aware approach to both research and intervention in occupational well-being.

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Buyue Zhang, College of Applied Technology, Yunnan Minzu University, No. 2929, Yuehua Street, Chenggong District, Kunming, People’s Republic of China. Email: [email protected]